term 1 Flashcards
(107 cards)
1
Q
what is the difference between radially and bilaterally symmetrical animals?
A
radially have a nervous system composed of a network of cells distributed through the body, and bilaterally have segregated and very defined nervous system.
2
Q
what is the ration of neurons to glial cells?
A
10:1
3
Q
what are the stonger points of development in each hemisphere?
A
left side: speech, writing, main language center, calculation, right visual field projection
Ride side: spatical perception, word comprehension, non-verbal concept formation, left visual field projection.
4
Q
what is the plane that divides the front and back?
A
frontal (coronal) plane
5
Q
what is the plane that divides the rights and left?
A
sagittal plane
6
Q
what is the plane that divides the top and body of the body?
A
transverse (horizontal) plane
7
Q
what is the terminology for sensory and motor nerves?
A
sensory is afferent (towards CNS)
motor is efferent (away from CNS)
*may not be specific for the type of nerve, but the direction instead
8
Q
what is the terminology if the nerve is on the same side? opposite?
A
same side: ipsilateral
opposite: contralateral
9
Q
what is the name for the anterior and posterior parts of the body?
A
anterior: ventral
posterior: dorsal
10
Q
what is the name for the left and right side of the body?
A
left is medial and right is isteral
11
Q
what is the name for the top and bottom of the body?
A
top is the rostral AND bottom is the cotal
12
Q
what contains the seonsry neurons?
A
white matter
13
Q
what contains the cell bodies?
A
gray matter
14
Q
what do the sensory and motor neurons come through to get to the central cannal of the spinal cord?
A
sensors come through the dorsal, motor cell body neurons come through the ventral horn.
15
Q
where do cell bodies stay?
A
in the dorsal horn.
16
Q
what are the 5 steps to the normal CNS development?
A
- induction
- neural tube formation
- regionalization and specific of the neural tube
- proliferation and migration
- connection and selection
17
Q
what is happening during the primary neurulation?
A
neural plate bends and begins to fold up. this creates neural groove. the folding continues and the crest cells sandwich between epidermis and neural tube. eventually the tube completely closes.
18
Q
what are sulcus liminants?
A
longitumal group in spinal cord wall. it seperates the wall neurons into two groups alar and basal
19
Q
what is the alar plate?
A
in the dorsal location this forms the sensory area >posterior horn.
migration of the plate forms the dorsal root ganglia
20
Q
what is the basal plate?
A
in the ventral location this forms the motor area> ventral nerve roots.
motor axons grow from this plate
21
Q
what is lumen?
A
ventricular system (and its full of CSF)
22
Q
what two things can go wrong during brain development of the fetus>?
A
- congenital malformations: congenital abnormalities, array of severity
- spinal bifida: defective closure of the neural tube, a bump forms along the spinal cord (usually lower back)
23
Q
how are caudate and lentiform nucei formed?
A
from splitting of the corpus striatum by the fibers projecting directly from the cerebral cortex and from the thalamus to the cortex
24
Q
what is the result of further expansion of the cerebral hemispheres?
A
brainstem-restricted to the remaining ‘free parts’ (midbrain-pons-mendulla)
25
at week 28 what is a major process?
several sulci (grooves) appear on the brain surfface
26
what does a bi lipid bilayer do?
it serves as a barrier against the movement of water molecules and water soluble substances.
27
what are transmembrane proteins?
they allow transport across the membrane; provide an alternate path into and out of the cell
28
what are the two major groups of transmembrane proteins?
channel proteins and carrier proteins.
29
describe channel proteins
they have a central pore that permits passage of ions across the membrane. It is selective for the ion it moves K+ Na+ and cl=
30
describe carrier proteins
they faciliate diffusio of molecules; undergo conformational change to bring the molevule accross the membrane
its highly selective in the types of molecules and ions they allow to cross
31
name the 2 mechanism of transport across the membrane.
diffusion: osmosis, [gradient]
the facilitated diffusion: polar or charges molecules and substances that cont diffuse
active transport: movements of ions agasint a [gradient] ATP required.
32
gating of protein channels are controlled in two ways, what are they?
1. voltage gating where the gate responds to an electrical potential accross the membrane
2. chemical gating- gate opens in response to binding of a chemical messenger.
33
what is the axon hillock?
its located where the acon emerges form the cell body. its the site of AP initiation. High [Na+ channels] and one triggered Ap propogates as a wave along the axon.
34
what is the refractory period?
it allows for unidirectional propogation of AP
35
what is the role of myelin in an AP propogation?
its a saltatory conduction. it increases the velocity of nerve transmission and conserves energy.
36
what is multiple sclerosis?
it is the demyelinization of the nerve cells.
37
what is a synapse?
the specialized junciton where neruons comminicated with eachother or a target cell.
38
name the 2 specific types of synapses.
1. withiin a neuron and the signal is transmited electrically.
2. between neurons information travels chemically (neurtransmitters)
39
what are the 3 elements (anatomy) of a synapse?
pre-synaptic cell >synaptic celf
40
explain the neuro transmitter glutamate
A.A. most common in CNS,
mediates excitatory signals
involved in cognition, memory, learning
41
explain the neurotransmitter GABA
A.A. major inhibitory NT
highly concentrated in the basal ganglia, hypothalamus, hippocampus
responsible for muscle tone regulation
42
explain the neurotransmitter Acetylcholine
biogenic amine
involved in learning and memory
degeneration =alzheimers' disease
43
explain the neurotransmiter Epinephrine
catecholamie
| mendulla oblongata
44
explain the neurotransmitter serotonin
depletion associated with depression, anxiety, OCD
45
explain the neurotransmitter dopamine
biogenic amine
46
what are menings?
they are protective layers that surround the brain. there are two subcategories of meninges and they are the pachymeninx and the leptomeninges.
47
explain the two types of meaninges.
pachumenix is a thick layer membrane ie. the dura mater, and the leptomeninges are the slender membranes ie. arachnoid mater and pia mater.
48
what is the purpose of CSF in the meninges?
the cerebrospinal fluid is found within the subarachnoid space. Ie between teh arachnoid and pia mater.
49
describe the dura mater
it is a though protective membrane fused with the endosteum of the skull. it enters within the cranium via the septa's (tentorium cerebelli and faux cerebelli) or venous sinuses within the septa.
50
what is the endosteum?
the inner most layer that covers bone. The outer layer is called. paroteum
51
explain the arachnoid mater "spider mater"
this is a think spidery fibrocellular layer that is in direct contact with the dura mater. there are tight junctions that bind the cells to seal the subarachnoid space.
52
what are arachnoid villi
they are villi that protude through the dura mater into the venous sinuses.
53
what are cisterns?
its the widening of the subarachnoid space. ex. cisterna ambiens (cistern of the creat carebral vien, nd cerebello-mendullary cistern.
54
explain the pia mater/
its the vascular membrane covered by flattened mesothelial cells. it follows the contous of the brain directly and vcant be rtemoved. it extends over cranial nerves and surrouns the aryteries that enter into the brain.
55
what happens whtn the pua mater (and other meninges) become irritated or inflamed?
meningitis.
56
name the meninges of the spinal cord?
```
dura mater (most external)
arachnoid mater (lines internal surface of the dura mater
pia mater- like the spinal cord attached to dura matter at intervals by the denticulate ligament.
```
57
what is the importance of the pontine and cephalic flexures?
its important to allow humans to be bipedal (stand on two feet)
58
can you explain the orientation of the cephalic flexure in adults?
it has an 80˚ bend between midbrain and diencephalon. remember dorsal is the top and back, after the pivot point, and ventral is the bottom and front.
59
that is the cerebral cortex?
the outer layer of the cerebrum and its composed of folded gray matter.
60
what are cerebral sulci?
its a groove, tench or furrow. In anatomy, a general term for such a dep[ression experically one on the brain surface, separating the gyri.
61
what are cerebral dyri?
the cyrus: is a ridge or fold between two clefts (sulci) on the cerebral surface in the brain.
62
name the 3 parts of the brainstem
midbrain (which is continuous with diencephalon) the pons and the medulla oblongata (which is continuous with the spinal cord)
63
what is the relative important of the brainstem
its position is the most important, but its bontract system is the key. Everything goes through the brian stem
64
what is the cerebellum?
its the little brain, its function is movement-related. and externally it has vermis (longitudinal midline strips) and it has anterior and posterior lobes.
65
name the 3 main components of the diencephalon
thalamus, hypothalamus and the pineal gland
66
explain the two main functions of the thalamus
its the cortex gate-keeper, and the pathways enrout to the cerebral corted synapse here.
67
explain the main functions of the hypothalamus
it controls the autonomic NS
68
explain the 3 main functions of the pineal gland
its an endocrine gland, it produces melatonine and its the derivative serotonin.
69
what are two components found in the cerebrum?
basal ganglia and limbic nuclei
70
```
explain the main function of the following:
hypothalamus
amygdala
basal ganglia
thalamus
hippocampus
```
```
regulates body function
emotion
movement/reward
sensory gateway
memory.
```
71
name the four kinds of the basal ganglia
1. lenticular nucleus has two nuclie >pitamen and globus pallidus
2. caudate nucleus is very closely related to the ventrolateral thalamus.
3. subthalamis nucleus
4. substantia nigra
72
what are the 5 parts of the internal capsule located in the brain stem and what is the TRACT?
1. anterior limb
2. Genu
3. Posterior limb
4. retrolentriform part
5. sublentiform part
tract is a large bundle of nerve fibres axon that have the same function
73
describe in depth the limbic nuclei (ie. its two sub parts)
1. hippocampus, during development it left behind a snail tail, (fornix) does short to long term memory, and spatial navigation
2. amygdala, processes memory and emotional reactions.
74
what is the fornix composed of?
white mater
75
classification of muscle can be based on myocyte morphology, what are the two kinds, and give an example of where you can find them.
striated and smooth.
smooth muscle cells dont have striations and sarcomeres, (cardiac)
striated muscle cells have striations caused by the myosin and actin in sarcomeres.
76
muscle classification can also be based on function, name the two kinds.
voluntary (limb control) and involuntary (internal contraction)
77
the function of muscle cells relates to their structure. Explain the visceral smooth muscle.
its found in the internal walls of organs, the contraction are of hollow internal organs and is responsible for the movement of fluid, food.
78
the function of muscle cells relates to their structure. Explain the skeletal muscle
its attached to the bone, and it moves the axial and appenducular skeleton. its responsible for posture and body position.
79
the function of muscle cells relates to their structure. Explain the cardia muscle
found in the heart wall, and contracts the atria and ventricles via SA nodes.
80
the function of muscle cells relates to their structure. Explain the visceral striated muscle
its found in soft tissues, and is used in breathing, speech, and swallowing.
81
how do you type the kinds of skeletal muscle fibres?
you detect muscle with a stain that utilizes enzyme oxidation. (NADH-TR), the more enzymes that there are the deeper the stain will be. This deepening of color represents more oxidation reactions.
82
what are the 3 types of skeletal muscle fibres?
type 1-
type 2a
type 2b
83
explain autonomically and functionally type 1 skeletal muscle fibres.
they are slow oxidative, they stain deep, they have high oxidative enzyme activity (lots of mitochondria), small in fibre size and they have a slow twitch, and are fatigue resistant (spine muscles)
84
explain autonomically and functionally type 2a skeletal muscle fibres.
they are fast oxidative, intermediate enzyme activity, they are medium-sized fibres and fast twitch, fatigue resistant. (hockey player muscles)
85
explain autonomically and functionally type 2b skeletal muscle fibres.
they are fast glycolytic, low oxidative enzyme activity, and large sized fibres. they twitch fast, and are fatigue prone. (sprinters and weight lifters)
86
the somatic NS has a breakdown of two types of motor neurons (upper and lower) explain their function.
the upper: the cell body reside in motor cortex of the brain. and they synaps in brain stem or a little lower in the spinal cord with the lower motor neurons
the lower: these guys leaves the CNS and intervates with the skeletal muscle.
87
what is the motor point?
where nerve enters the muscle (1/3 way down). its importnat in functional electrical stimulation. i
88
what is the electrical stimulation?
it uses electrical current to stimulate nerves innervating muscle of interest. its primarily used to restore function.
89
what are proprioceptors?
they are sensory receptors that respond to strech.. they detect the stretching length of the mucsle, and are located in the belly of the muscle.
90
where are they located/ how do mucles and sensory neurons connect? >
they intertwine around intrafusal fibers (dont contract), just sensory, and are surrounded by extrafusal (contract).
spindles encased by protected tissue.
91
what percentage of axons in a nerve innervating a muscle are motor? sensory? how do neuromuscular spindles intereacT?
60% motor, 40% sensory, and neuromuscular spindles have a motor supply of their own.
92
what is a motor nerve?
bundle of motor axons that carry messages from the CNS to muscle
93
what is a motor neuron?
cell body within the CNS and axon projects to the periphery within a motor nerve to control muscle activity (contraction)
94
what is a motor unit?
its a motor nerve (from spinal cord of brainstem, and all fibres it innervates)
95
what is a motor end plate?
where the motor axon makes contact with the muscle fibre.
96
what is the neuromuscular junction?
it transmits signals from motor neurons to skeletal muscles. the messages are quick, reliable and precise. they use neurotransmitters.
97
what is the motor end plate?
its where the motor nerve branches, and axons within the nerves branch at junction between neurons and muscle. Sarcolemma in there regions exhibit junctional folds.
98
what are junctional folds?
they aid messages reliability by increasing surface area for transmitter release. it increases surface are for receptors and also rapidly terminated the signals.
99
why is the postganglionic neuron that is unmyelinated so wierd?
only time you see one out of CNS and is autonomic!
| majority of this neurons are unmylinated.
100
how does the hypothalamus interact with the control center?
it sends central autonomic fibres to synapse with pre-ganbglionic neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord.
101
where does the pre-ganglionic neuron synapse with ganglionic neruons?
within the autonomic ganglia
102
what is the process of the sympathetic nervous system?
outflow from the CNS through the thoracolumbar> pre-ganglionic neuron located in lateral horn>exits via anterior nerve rout> enter paracertebral sympathetic chain.
signals can than move up, down or transport right through.
103
through what does the parasympathetic nevours system outflow from the CNS?
craniosacral
104
what are teh 5 cranial nberves?
1. oculomotor
2. facial
3. glossopharyngeal
4. vagus
5. sacral segments S2-S4
105
what is Acetylcholine released by?
```
all preganglionic neurons of the PNS
all preganglionic neurons of the SNS
all postgranglionic neurons of the PNS
most postganglionic neurons of the SNS that go to sweat glands
all motor enurons to skeletal muscles
```
106
how is norepinephrine released?
its the chemical transmitter released by all postganglionic neurons of the SNS. The only exception are teh postganglionic sympatheti neurons that go to sweat glangs, (which empliy ACh as their transmitter)
107
what is einephrine?
its a major transmitter released by the adrenal medulla.
