TECTONICS Flashcards

1
Q

Haiti context 2010

A

Between the Caribbean and North American plates
● Over a major fault line
● 7.0 mag (lasted over 1 min)
● Epicentre was 15 miles from nation’s capital, Port Au Prince
● Very shallow focus, 13km deep

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2
Q

Haiti vulnerability

A

Haiti was very vulnerable to this earthquake
● Close to nation’s capital with population of around 2 million
● Main source of income is remittances
● Haiti was spending 80% of its national budget on loan repayments by 1900
● 98% of Haiti deforested, meaning the land is less stable as the roots from trees are no longer there to bind it
● By the time all of the loans were paid off, Haiti was left destitute and trapped in a spiral of debt
● Unemployed (Unemployment rate = 75%) and People on $2 a day cannot afford quake-proof housing
● Capital is built upon many unstable soils and seismic waves amplified within the soil ○ Caused intense shaking and liquefaction
● Had a vulnerable population (2009 stats)
○ Nearly 40% of the population are u14
○ Life expectancy = 52
○ GDP was only $1,300
○ 80% of the population lived below the poverty line and
○ 25 doctors per 100,000 people

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3
Q

Haiti Capacity to Cope

A

Haiti did not have the resources to prepare
Building quality was poor and therefore easily collapsed
● At least 500,000 people in the slum of Cité de Soleil in Port-au-Prince live in abject poverty, these people were the worst affected
● Haiti was already reliant on international aid before the earthquake

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4
Q

Haiti Response

A

Short-term
● Aid effort from within Haiti was virtually non-existent
● Foreign aid was slowed due to lack of transport infrastructure
● Satellite imagery in London was used to guide relief efforts
● Many countries responded to the appeals for aid → Much confusion over who was in charge
Long-term
● USA took charge in trying to coordinate aid distribution
● The EU gave $330 million and the World Bank waived the countries debt repayments for 5 years
● Senegalese offered land to any Haitians who wanted it
● Dominican Republic offered support and accepted some refugees
● No. people in relief camps post quake = 1.6 million, no transitional housing had been built. Most of the camps had no electricity, running water, or sewage disposal, tents falling apart
● Between 23 major charities, $1.1 billion had been collected for Haiti for relief efforts, but 2% percent of the money had been released
● After 1 yr, 1 million people were still displaced

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5
Q

Haiti social impacts

A

● Looting and sporadic violence occurred
● Approx 315, 000 died
○ ¼ of gov officials died = no one coordinated
● Over 1 mil made homeless
● 3 mil in total affected
● The government of Haïti also estimated that 250,000 residences and 30,000 commercial buildings had collapsed or were severely damaged
● 1 in 5 jobs were lost as a result of the earthquake

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6
Q

Haiti Economic impacts

A

● The clothing industry, which accounts for two-thirds of Haïti’s exports, reported structural damage at manufacturing facilities
● Port was destroyed ∴ imports/exports ↓

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7
Q

2008 Sichuan earthquake Context

A

Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate - pressure released along Longmenshan fault line (runs below Sichuan)
● 7.9 - tremors lasted 120 seconds
● Epicentre = 80km NW of Chengdu (provincial capital)
● Focal depth = 19km

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8
Q

Haiti environmental impacts

A

Sea levels in local areas changed, meaning some parts of the land were sinking below the sea level
● Animal habitats destroyed

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9
Q

Sichuan Vulnerability

A

Earthquake’s damage concentrated in rural and small towns (less densely populated) ● China is wealthier - growing economy ∴ had funds to pay for rescue & aid efforts ● Strong central gov able to respond quickly and effectively to disaster ● Population statistics
○ Approx 20% of the population are u14
○ Life expectancy = About 74
○ GDP was only $4.6 trillion
○ 13% of the population lived below the poverty line and
○ 93% were literate
○ Approx 2.5 million licensed doctors

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10
Q

Sichuan capacity to cope

A

Lack of preparedness
● Corruption of gov and law enforcement meant some unsafe building practices still exist
● Non governmental buildings not necessarily earthquake proof
● No fixed evac sports and no reg earthquake drills
● Resources to respond quickly
● Stronger buildings than Haiti ∴ safer buildings and better infrastructure

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11
Q

Sichuan response

A

Short-term
● Troops parachuted into Wenchuan to assess the situation, & hiked on foot, as landslides had made roads inaccessible
● Production of tents ↑ → Over 3 million needed to house people who had been made homeless
● > £100 million donated to Red Cross in the fortnight after
● Running camps, ensuring food, medicine & doctors were available, tents w/ blankets & mattresses and volunteers
● 20 helicopters assigned to rescue and relief efforts in Wenchuan, which was cut off by landslide
● Army troops helped to free trapped survivors
● Teams from Japan, Russia and South Korea joined the rescue effort
Long-term
● 1 million temp homes to house those that had lost theirs (expected to be built in next three years)
● Banks wrote of debt owed by survivors who didn’t have any insurance ● Chinese gov pledged $10 million rebuilding fund → towards collapsed structures and the 1 million temp homes
● China requested help from Japan, Russia and Korea
● Red Cross donated food and medicine
● After 2 yrs
○ 99% of about 200 000 farmhouses destroyed had been rebuilt
○ 97% of planned approx 30 000 reconstruction projects in the region had started
○ Over 200 transport projects underway

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12
Q

Sichuan social impacts

A

Schools
● School buildings meant to meet tougher regulations than normal buildings ○ Protecting the children
● Money spent on governmental buildings but some building codes ignored for schools as would cost more money (corruption)
● 5000 children died
● Approx 70, 000 people killed, approx 375, 000 injured
● Over 18, 000 listed missing
● 100 schools collapsed
● Communications (telephones) cut of

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13
Q

Sichuan economic

A

● Cargo train (13 petrol tanks) derailed in Hui Country & set alight
● Around 400 dams were damaged
● Oil prices dropped (speculation China demand would ↓ )
● Cost $191 million
● In Shifang, chemical plants collapsed, killing hundreds (& releasing toxic ammonia)

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14
Q

Sichuan environmental impacts

A

Landslides
● 6 pandas escaped at Wolong Nature reserve - 2 injured, 1 dead
● Rivers blocked by landslides, 34 quake lakes formed.
● Risk of flooding when dams collapsed

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15
Q

2010 Iceland volcano vulnerability

A
  • Small pop (320,000) - low population density
  • 3.6 doctors per 100 people
  • Approx $12.5 billion GDP
  • 4th on HDI
  • People who live near water were more vulnerable to flooding
  • 99% literacy rate
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16
Q

2010 Indian Ocean Tsunami Context

A

14 countries surrounding the Indian Ocean affected
● Economic losses and deaths in Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka and Somalia among
others make this disaster one of the largest ever in terms of areal extent
● 9.0 magnitude
● 900 mile fault line

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17
Q

2010 Indian Ocean Tsunami Vulnerability

A

Inequality
● High state of vulnerability for surrounding nations due to lack of preparedness and education
Governance
● Preparedness and technology to cope with disaster was weak Geographical factors
● Very destructive fault line
● Warnings were inadequate

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18
Q

2010 Indian Ocean Tsunami Impacts

A

Social
● 250, 000 deaths
● Outbreak of cholera
● Lack of food supply
Economic
● $9.4 bn damage
● Fishing industry devastated in Sri Lanka
● Tourism collapsed
Environment
● Smaller islands completely destroyed
● Pollution and debris hazard

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19
Q

2010 Iceland volcano Capacity to cope

A

Prepared for the eruption because the first eruption occurred on 20th of March, so were prepared for larger eruptions
● High tech equipment for prediction
○ Warning systems (texts sent to residents with a 30 min warning)
● Professional response teams

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20
Q

2010 Iceland Response

A

Short-term
● Evacuation around volcano
● European Red Cross societies mobilised volunteers, staff and other resources
● Red Cross provided food for population living in vicinity of the glacier, as well as
counselling and psychosocial support
● 700 people were evacuated from the disaster zone
● People had to flee their homes in the middle of the night
● Immediate closure of airspace = death toll 0
Long-term
● EU developed an integrated structure for air traffic management

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21
Q

2010 Iceland Social

A

Sporting events were cancelled due to cancelled flights
● Flooding by melting glacier displaced people (Jökulhlaup)
● Respiratory diseases/problems
● Homes damaged

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22
Q

2010 Iceland Economic impacts

A

Airfreight = 25% of trade by value in UK
● No fly zone cost airlines approx £130 mil/day
○ Flights cancelled due to lack of visibility and microscopic particles of volcano rocks can clog up engines
● Car manufacturing
○ Nissan in Japan had to stop manufacturing of certain car models as sensor
shipped from Ireland could not get there ● Perishable goods
○ Large quantities of flowers and vegetables from Kenya left to rot
■ Kenya’s flower council = Approx $1.5 million a day lost shipments to
europe
○ WB estimated approx $65 mil lost by African countries due to shutdown of
transport of perishable goods

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23
Q

2010 Iceland Environmental Impacts

A

Gas released killed crop yields
● Affected part of Iceland’s coastal sand plain
● Local water supplies contaminated w/ fluoride as it was contained in the ash
● Ash from the volcano deposited dissolved into the North Atlantic, triggering a plankton bloom, driving an increased biological productivity

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24
Q

2011 Tohoku Context

A

Magnitude 9.0 earthquake
● Category VI (highest) on the Tsunami intensity scale
● March 2011
● Epicentre approx 70 km East of the Oshika Peninsula of Tohoku
● Focus was at an underwater depth of approx 32 km
● Japan located at the point of 3 tectonic plates (The Eurasian, Pacific and Philippine
plates)
● Had a significant nuclear impact
● Land subsided by 1-2 metres meaning sea walls were lowered
○ Tsunami ∴ easily passed over them

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25
2011 Tohoku Capacity to cope
Overall high capacity to cope → Earthquakes & Tsunamis are common ● 40% of Japan’s coastline has sea walls up to 10m high ● Japan has a hazards agency, the Japanese Meteorological Agency, which is set up for the prediction of earthquakes and tsunami ● Buildings in Japan are also designed to cope with Earthquakes, and Japan’s high level of development means that buildings are made to be life safe and can actually move with earthquake waves and reduce damage
26
Tohoku 2011 Vulnerability
Coastline vulnerable as majority of people live on coast of Japan ● Upper 10m of soil in the zone was vulnerable, as the waves amplified in the soil, liquefaction occurred ● High lit rate - 99%
27
2011 Tohoku Response
Short-term ● The Japanese government responded by sending in specially trained people such as the Self-Defence Forces, a domestic response ● Many countries such as the UK sent search and rescue teams to help search for survivors ● NGOs and other Aid agencies helped too, with the Japanese Red Cross reporting $1 billion in donations ● 100,000 Japanese soldiers sent out for search and rescue ● Specialist search and rescue teams flown from overseas ● 3 mins post quake, tsunami warning issued on TV ○ Not everyone listened to this & also underestimated the Tsunami ● Temp evac zones (shelters opened) Long-term ● 6 days after the quake, a motorway was repaired ● Facilities were rebuilt over time ● Tsunami defence system was installed ● Total of 116 countries and 28 international organisations offered assistance ● Approx 10 tonnes of equipment was shipped out
28
2011 Tohoku Social
Approx 16,000 dead (approx 60% of dead 60+)(approx 90% died by drowning) ● Approx 6000 injured ● Approx 4000 missing ● Approx 350,000 displaced people in the region needed catering for & issues included shortages of food, water, shelter, medicine and fuel for survivors ● Destroyed the Fukushima power nuclear power station ○ Caused loss of public trust in nuclear power (Germany & Italy even shut down some plants and scraped plans to build new ones) ● Electricity lost for 6 mil homes ● 4 million people left homeless ● Approx 20,000 still isolated weeks later ● 600 roads cut off, 32 bridges destroyed ● Approx 46, 000 buildings destroyed & approx 150, 000 were damaged ● Destroyed factories ∴ many left unemployed
29
2011 Tohoku Economic impacts
Capital costs of construction of nuclear power stations ↑ due to enforced safety measures ● Global prices of Liquified Natural Gas ↑ ○ Worldwide availability & affordability of LNG affected due to Japan’s sudden demand ● Treatment of nuclear damage ● Cost of recovery = $235 billion ● Tokyo stocks fell
30
2011 Tohoku Environmental impacts
Radioactive release from 3 cooling reactors into the sea and local fishing grounds ● 5000km2 of coastal plains hit, destroying farmland & settlements ● Ruptured gas pipes lead to fires ● Natural habitats and vegetation damaged ● Liquefaction covered large areas in mud ● Many animals killed
31
Multi Hazard Zone - Philippines
Has 37 volcanoes, 18 of which are active ● 7000 islands, 1000 inhabited ● 102 mil population ○ 74% have been exposed to 2+ hazards ● 60% of its land is exposed to multiple hazards ● 2% of annual GDP is spent on clearing up typhoons ● 1950-2015 - 555 major hazard events occurred ● 2015 - WRI placed it 3rd on the most at risk country list
32
Isle of Purbeck - Geological structure example
East Dorset Concordant Coast There has been erosion of the resistant limestone in Purbeck at the entrance to the Lulworth Cove This has formed a cove/bay
33
How many sediment cells are there around England and Wales?
11
34
Holderness Coast - The sediment cell
Sources → Where sediment is eroded from cliffs (Flamborough Head’s chalk, Hornsea’s boulder clay). River systems (River Humber) are also important sources ● Transfer zones → Places where sediment is moving along the coastline by LSD & offshore currents. Beaches, parts of dunes and salt marshes (Humber Estuary) perform this function ● Sinks → Locations where dominant process = deposition; depositional landforms are created such as offshore bars & spits (Spurn Head) Some coastal features can act as sources and sinks (sand dunes), depending on whether the coastline is dominantly depositional or erosional
35
Holderness Negative feedback mechanisms
Storms (short-term) could erode Spurn Head, disrupting the equilibrium however it returns over time. Negative feedback which helps to return the equilibrium: ● During a major erosive period (eg. winter), a lot of cliff collapse would occur resulting in a lot of chalk/boulder clay at the bottom of the cliff. This however protects the cliff base from further wave attack, slowing the erosion. ● Major erosion at Spurn Head = ↑ deposition offshore = offshore bar which protects the spit & allows it to recover
36
Holderness human intervention
Human intervention (coastal management, sea level rise etc) can impact long-term dynamic equilibrium. Examples of positive feedback that lead to this: ● ↑ storms due to climate change = beach eroded faster ∴ recent debris never protects the cliff for long leading to overall erosion ↑ in speed ● Rising sea levels = ↑ erosion of Spurn head (eg), as sediment removed faster than replaced
37
What is a delta?
Triangular landform created by sediment deposition from a river
38
The Nile Delta - Human actions
Built the Aswan High Dam Has led to water withdrawals for industry, cities and farming from the reservoir behind the Aswan High Dam ● Sediment being trapped by the reservoir and dam; water in the dam flows very slowly allowing sediment to be deposited
39
Impacts of the Nile Delta Dam
Impacts of the dam River discharge ↓ from 35 billion m3 per year to 10 billion m3 ● Sediment volume fell from 130 million tonnes to about 15 million tonnes ● Erosion rates at the Rosetta (where one of the main delta branches of the river meets the sea) increased from 20m to over 200m per year
40
Bangladesh - flooding vulnerability
World’s most densely populated country (approx 170 million, 2015) ● Much of country is very low-lying (1-3m above sea level) ● 46% of country lives less than 10 metres above sea level ● 70% of Bangladesh is less than 10m above sea level ● Lies on floodplains of 3 major rivers: Brahmaputra, Meghna and Ganges → empty into Bay of Bengal through smaller estuaries ∴ river and coastal flooding combine ○ Triangular shape of the Bay of Bengal concentrates a cyclone storm surge as it moves N ↑ its height when it reaches land ● Almost all the coastline consists of unconsolidated delta sediment, which is very susceptible to erosion ● Deforestation of coastal mangrove forests has removed vegetation that ince stabilised coastal swamps and dissipated wave energy during tropical cyclones
41
2007 Cyclone Sidr in Bangladesh
High winds damaged housing, roads, bridges etc ● Electricity and communications knocked out, roads/ waterways became impassable ● Drinking water contaminated by debris, fresh water sources were inundated with salt water ● Sanitation infrastructure destroyed, raising the risk of disease ● 15, 000 deaths Economic - 1.7billion USD cost Breached many coastal and river embankments causing severe flooding in low-lying areas
42
Holderness Coast context
50km from Flamborough to Spurn Head ● 1 of the fastest eroding coastlines in Europe ○ 2m per year ● Long fetch (500-800km)
43
Holderness coast - physical factors
Weather ● Winter storm surges = strong waves & higher sea levels ○ Also intensify sub aerial processes ○ Saturated clay cliffs suffer increased runoff leading to slumping & other forms of mass movement Waves ● NE fetch - (500-800km) ● Destructive waves erode the beaches and attack the foot of the cliffs, removing the clay in suspension ○ LSD then carriers this material S ■ The tides and the lower energy environment of the Humber estuary allows sediments to collect forming a spit, mudflats and sand dunes near to spurn head Geology ● Mainly chalk & boulder clay (rapidly eroded by the sea) ○ Flamborough head - more resistant chalk has been able to survive the large-scale erosion ○ The boulder clay cliffs to the S are more easily eroded & their retreat has formed the sweeping bay of Holderness
44
What is Flamborough Head
Illustrates how wave erosion can produce the arch, stack and wave-cut platform features associated with chalk rock ○ The chalk is resistant to erosion and has a distinctive lithology ○ The horizontal bedding planes are seen in cliffs at Flamborough Head and North Landing where they assist in the development of wave cut platforms
45
What are the Holderness cliffs?
Made up of Boulder clay cliffs which are formed from material left by ice sheets - retreating at an average of 2m per year (10x the rate of chalk cliffs) ○ A result of the combined effects of land processes and sea erosion ■ On land - rainwater enters the clay and the weight of the water causes material to slide seawards - cause slumping ■ Cliff-foot - fine clay is easily removed by waves exposing the cliff foot to sea erosion (cliffs at Easington are retreating locally at rates of over 10m a year)
46
Spurn Head - Holderness
Sediments are deposited here where the winds, waves and river estuary have created a recurved spit - grows by approx 10cm each year
46
Economic impact of coastal erosion
Golden sands resort lost 100 chalets in 15 yrs ○ Lack of tourism ○ 80,000m2 of farmland lost per yr ■ By 2100, 200 homes & many roads projected to be lost to sea
47
Human impact of Holderness erosion
Physical processes have been turned into hazards & a potential threat to life and property because of increasing population levels in the area due to retirement & tourism ● LSD has been impacted due to the implementation of unsuitable defence strategies ● Global warming - sea level rising, increasing frequency and intensity of storms (Humber Estuary particularly at risk - 1⁄2 mil people live less than 2m above current sea level)
48
Social impacts of coastal erosion
Businesses close - lack of tourism ○ No insurance for coastal erosion as too expensive/not available ○ Houses ■ DEFRA, E Riding Development fund raised 1.2 mil which supported 36 homes financially
49
Environmental impacts of coastal erosion
Lack of sediment means less wildlife diversity e.g behind Spurn Head
50
Hard engineering strategies in the Holderness
Sea walls - Hornsea & Withernsea ● Revetments - Easington gas terminal (handles 25% of North sea production of natural gas) ● Gabions - Skipsea ● Groynes - Hornsea (repairing and new ones = £5.2 mil), Withernsea and Mappleton ● Rip-rap - Withernsea and Easington ● Cliff regrading - Mappleton
51
Soft engineering - Holderness
● Beach nourishment - Hornsea and Mappleton ● Do nothing - Neck of spurn head ● Managed retreat - Suggested for Hornsea in 1994 but not implemented
52
Mappleton case study Holderness
Village was 3.5km from sea but by 1988, the sea was on the doorstep In 1991 a scheme was implemented costing £2.1 mil (supported by EU funding)
53
Amazonian Rainforest - context
Amazon rainforest contains 60% of the world’s rainforest ● Known as the ‘green lungs’ of the world ● Over 20% of rainforest has been destroyed at an accelerating rate in the last 50 yrs
54
Amazonian Rainforest - impacts of human disruption
Used to release 20km3 of water to the atmosphere per day but this is reducing ● Deforested areas are 3oC warmer than forested areas ● Dry seasons are getting longer, with a 21% ↓ in rainfall by 2050 ● Previously 75% of intercepted water returned by EVT, now 25%
55
Water budget - Tropical climate (Amazon)
Winter: November to January ○ Recharge occurs during this time as precipitation is higher than evapotranspiration ○ Highest rainfall month: February ○ The soil moisture surplus lasts till May ● Evapotranspiration levels remain similar all year (100-150mm) ○ This is because the average temp remains around 25oC year round ● Rainfall lower May to November ○ Higher evapotranspiration than precipitation so there is a soil moisture deficit by October
56
Temperate climate - Southern UK
● Precipitation relatively constant throughout the year (50mm/month) ○ Tends to decrease slightly between May and August (Summer) ● Evapotranspiration exhibits large variations ○ July = 70mm ○ December = 5mm ● Soil moisture deficit tends to occur in July and August as plants have used up the winter surplus
57
Polar climate - North Canada
Precipitation remains low year round ○ July & August is maximum (24mm) ● Evapotranspiration tends to occur only between May and September due to a slight rise in temperatures ○ Peak is July = 126mm ● Soil moisture recharge primarily occurs between September and May - mainly due to snowmelt ○ Surplus at the start of summer but a deficit tends to be reached by August
58
Sahel region - contribution of human activity to the risk of drought
Semi arid area already Humans do not cause the drought but they act like a positive feedback loop, enhancing its impacts ● Air pollution from Europe and N America cooled the Earth, preventing tropical rains moving Northwards ● Higher sea temps (from global warming) prevented moist Atlantic air moving over W Sahel ● Desertification has resulted from overuse of land due to population pressures
59
Conflicts in the Nile
Context: 6700km long 11 countries compete for the Nile's water, though it has modest discharge levels relative to its size at 80bn cubic metres Large number of national borders 300mil people live in the Nile Basin and this is projected to double Egypt is dependent on the Nile for 95% of its water needs, but other states such as Ethiopia need large supplies of water to develop crop irrigation, HEP production and industrial processing in order to ↓ poverty Grand Renaissance dam could lead to war
60
Water transfers in China - Pros
It will transfer a total of 44.8 bn cubic metres of water per yr ● Central government will provide 60% of the cost of the scheme, with the rest coming from local authorities, which, in turn, will charge domestic and industrial users ● Water conservation, improved irrigation, pollution treatment and environmental protection are included in the plans ● Will reduce the abstraction of groundwater
61
Water transfer in China - Cons
Critics are concerned about the uncertainties and risks associated with the project ● These include the likelihood of significant ecological and environmental impacts along the waterway ● The Yangtze River is already severely polluted, and water of the Yellow Rivers is undrinkable ○ Some fear ecological disaster ● It will submerge 370km2 of land ● 345000 will have to relocate ● The Eastern route is industrial and risks further pollution
62
Why is water transfer necessary in China? How has the govt prepared for it?
S of China is rich in water, whilst N is not. Beijing region has 35% of the population and 40% of arable land but only 7% of its water Subsequently, a N-S water diversion project began in 2003 which will take 50 yrs to complete and will build 3 canals
63
Singapore schemes - Singapore
Per capita water consumption fell from 165 L per day in 2000 to 150 L in 2015, through metering the water supply and education of the public difficulties ● Leakages have been cut to 5% ● Water prices are scaled - the price rises if use goes about a certain level ● Subsidies protect poorest citizens from expensive water ● The whole of Singapore is a water harvesting catchment ○ Diversified supplies include local catchment water, recycled water and desalinated water ● Infrastructure to capture as much of the runoff from the urban areas as possible ● Recycling water in their NEWater scheme, where grey water is purified through membranes and ultraviolet disinfection (in the future this will provide 55% of the country’s needs)
63
UK energy consumption - CONTEXT
used to depend on coal from up north and south Wales, but the discovery of oil and gas in the North Sea has changed it
64
Integrated basin management - Colorado Drainage Basin
Large Basin & long river ● Large water demand & growing population ● Large part of the basin is desert or semi-arid ● 7 US states and Mexico take water from it ● Climate change is creating drier conditions and variable river levels Mexico takes 10% of the total flow ● The states in the Lower Basin take 50% and the Upper basin falls short by 10% ● California takes 20% more than its allocation, which had been agreed separately in 1963 ● Native Americans are owed 5% but they could claim more because their reservations extend along the river and two of its tributaries
65
UK energy mix - reasons for coal obsolesce
The UK has 150 years of coal reserves, but extraction is now unrealistic and expensive due to technology and environmental policies. The last deep coal mine closed in 2015, despite 80% of energy coming from fossil fuels. 'Clean coal' technology exists, but coal has lost political support.
66
Norway energy mix - facts and figures
Norsk Hydro runs over 600 HEP plants - supply 97.5% of the renewable energy HEP plants expensive to start but cheap to maintain - expensive to transport from rural areas to urban and isolated areas HEP used since 1907, and the Norwegian Water and Energy Directorate manages the nation’s power supply.
67
Norway energy mix - context
Steep valleys and mountainous and plentiful rain - ideal for HEP Much of the oil in territorial waters is exported as is Svalbard coal
68
Norway GDP per capita
$101,000 2022
68
Norway energy mix pros
Govt has an interventionist approach - prevents foreign ownership of primary energy sources Royalties and taxes paid into government from the sale of fossil fuels boost standard of living through gov spending, but profits also go to a sovereign wealth fund to prepare for a future without fossil fuels and investment in environmentally sustainable projects.
69
UK GDP per capita
46,000 in 2022
70
What was the avg household energy bill in 2015 in the UK and Norway?
1,300 and 2,400
71
The UK has committed to what carbon acts?
The UK has legally enshrined targets to reduce emissions by 78% by 2035 compared to 1990 levels
72
What insulation and conservation scheme has the UK abandoned in 2015?
'Green Deal'
73
What did Norway commit to in 2015?
In 2015, Norway committed to a 40% reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions by 2030
74
What were the carbon emissions of Norway in 2015 compared to 1990?
Norway’s CO2 emission were 11.74 tonners per capita compared to 11.6 in 1989
75
What were the carbon emissions of the UK in 2015 compared to 1990?
In 2015, the UK’s CO2 emissions were 7.13 tonners per capita compared to 11.5 in 1980.
76
Strait of Malacca Chokepoint:
Between Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore. o 2 nd largest chokepoint for oil and gas transit by tanker o In December 2015, the International Maritime Bureau reported piracy attacks along it. o Criminal gangs’ frequency seized ships for hostage payments- over 500 attacks occurred from 2009-15.
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Russian Gas to Europe
Russia is the second largest gas in the world ● The Yamal- Europe Pipeline o 4107km gas pipeline o It runs from Russian through Belarus and Poland into Germany. o Russia’s Gazprom exports 80% of their Gas to Europe- try to avoid transit states. ● Nord Stream Pipeline: o Runs 1200km along the bed of the Baltic Sea ● South Stream Pipeline: o Runs under the Black Sea to Bulgaria. War with Ukraine has hindered the amount of gas exported to Europe.
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Canadian Tar Sands
here are numerous deposits of tar sands in the world - but biggest in Canada & Venezuela ● Currently Tar sands produce about 40% of Canada’s oil output ● The 2015 fall in global price of oil had a depressing impact on the tar sands industry because extraction of bitumen is expensive, mainly due to large energy input
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Oil drilling in ANWR (The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge)
Going to provide 1.1 billion for the local economy and protect oil jobs for the foreseeable future Not likely to make a significant impact on the US's reliance on foreign energy however, as they import over 8.51 million barrels per day
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US Shale gas
In 2000, shale gas provided 1% of the USA’s gas supply, in 2015 it was nearly 25% ○ Most of the ↑ due to the growing use of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) to release oil & gas from underground formations that are otherwise too difficult to drill ● Most important Shale gas areas: NYC, Pennsylvania, Texas & W. Virginia ● Fracking now a key determiner of US oil security Environmental concerns ● Possible contamination of groundwater ● Production of pollutants eg. methane ● Random animal deaths
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Brazilian deepwater oil
The discovery of huge oil deposit gar off the Brazilian coast in 2006 was hailed as one of the biggest oil finds to date ○ Drilling started in 2006, about 250km off the shores of SE Brazil, in waters 2000m deep. First oil extracted in 2010 ● Brazil = one of the leading emerging economies & needs Gas & oil ● By 2019, the aim of Petrobras (state oil company) was to produce 500,000 barrels of oil a day ○ May reach 3.5 mil barrels a day in 2025 before declining again Concerns ● Serious pollution of waters ● Rigs are beyond the range of most helicopters and access by ship made hazardous by prevailing rough seas ● The oil & gas reservoirs contain huge amounts of toxic, flammable & explosive gases
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UK changing energy mix
43.8% renewable 46.6 = non renewable Today, less energy is consumed than in 1970, despite the population ↑ of 6.5 million ● The UK is now more efficient, both in producing energy and in using it ● The rise of a less-energy intensive service sector at the expense of industry has also played a sig part ● Households now use 12% less energy while industry uses 60% less ○ BUT these savings have been offset by transport, particularly the big ↑ in the number of vehicles on the roads and of flight
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Biofuels in Brazil - Context
4% of its energy comes from renewable sources ● Brazil is the world’s largest producer of ethanol from sugar cane ○ In 2019/20 sugar cane production estimated to be 643 mil metric tons ● Has become the leading exporter of sugar & ethanol
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Biofuels in Brazil - Cars
Approx 90% of new passenger vehicles sold in Brazil contain flex fuel engines that work using any combination of petrol & sugarcane ethanol ○ Has led to a sig ↓ in CO2 emissions ● Big business - $50bn per yr w/ 1,34 mil direct jobs ● Waste from processing sugar cane used to produce electricity ● Biodiesel from soybean oil is being developed
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Biofuels in Brazil - Negatives
Displacement of other types of agriculture such as cattle pasture ○ Caused a need to create replacement pastures ○ Resulted in clearance of tropical rainforest and the deforestation is now basically cancelling out the ↓ in CO2 emissions related to the increasing use of ethanol
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Changing Climates - Amazon Context
The forest acts as a global and regional regulatorm pumping 20 bn metric tonnes of water into the atmosphere daily, 3 bn more than the River Amazon discharges to the ocean ● The forest’s uniform humidity lowers atmospheric pressure, allowing moisture from the Atlantic ocean to reach further inland than areas w/out forest coverage ● Rain bearing winds travel W until deflected by the Andes and normally transport moisture S sto Buenos Aires and E to Sao Paulo
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Changing Climates - Amazon
Since 1990, a more extreme cycle of drought and floods has developed in Amazonia, w/ a wetter rainy season, linked to shifts in the Inter-tropical convergence Zone) ● Rainfall has ↓ downwind of deforested areas, w/ Sae Paulo suffering a water crisis ● Severe droughts in 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2016 has increased stress which was already high due to decades of deforestation ○ 2005 drought damaged 30% of the forest ○ 2010 many areas still vulnerable, 50% of forest affected ■ During droughts, less CO2 absorbed and greater decomposition of dead biomass = increased CO2 emissions - approx 13 bn tonnes during 2005 & 2010 droughts)
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Changing Climates - Impacts on the Amazon rainforest
A drier Amazon = forest becoming a net carbon emitter rather than a major global store
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Temperature affecting evaporation rates and the quantity of water vapour in atmosphere - Arctic
he Arctic will have the greatest ↑ in temp of any global location, especially in winter
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IMPACTS temps affect evaporation rates and the quantity of water vapour in the atmosphere - Arctic
Will ↓ the amount & duration of snow cover each yr and melt ice & permafrost ● Extra melting will ↑ river discharges earlier in spring and create river-ice floods ● Arctic sea ice will decline (3.8% a yr), creating habitat changes for polar bears and seals ● People in the Arctic may experience more building collapse (as permafrost thaws),, more flooding and ↑ in wildlife stress may lead to food insecurity as hunting areas change ● Infrastructure may be damaged, causing pollution (eg. pipelines) and cutting transport connections ● As Arctic ice disappears, there is likely to be an ↑ in exploration for oil & natural gas and shipping routes through the ocean
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