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Geography Paper 1 > Tectonic Processes and Hazards > Flashcards

Tectonic Processes and Hazards Flashcards

1
Q

What is a hazard?

A

A potential threat to human life and property

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2
Q

What can a natural hazard be?

A

Hydro-meteorological (caused by climatic processes)
Geophysical (caused by land processes)

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3
Q

Where do geophysical hazards occur?

A

Near plate boundaries
- These plates move at different speeds and directions which can cause collisions, earthquakes and volcanic activity

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4
Q

As well as plate boundaries, where else can earthquakes occur?

A

Near the middle of plates- called intraplate

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5
Q

What could be the reason for intraplate earthquakes?

A
  • Some plates have pre-existing weaknesses which become reactivated, forming seismic waves
  • An intraplate earthquake may occur, for example, if solid crust, which has weakened over time, cracks under pressure
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6
Q

Where are volcanic hotspots situated?

A

Near the centre of plates
- This is a localised area of the lithosphere which has an unusually high temperature due to the upwelling of hot molten material from the core

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7
Q

What happens at hotspots?

A

Magma rises as plume (hot rock)

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8
Q

Where do the most powerful earthquakes usually occur?

A

Convergent or conservative boundaries

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9
Q

What is the OFZ?

A

Oceanic Fracture Zone
- A belt of activity through the oceans and along the mid-ocean ridges through Africa, the Red Sea, the Dead Sea

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10
Q

What is the CFZ?

A

Continental Fracture Zone
- A belt of activity along the mountain ranges from Spain through the Alps to the Middle East and Himalayas

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11
Q

Tectonic trends since 1960:

A
  • Total number of recorded hazards has increased
  • The number of fatalities has decreased, but there are some spikes during megadisasters
  • The economic cost associated with hazards has greatly increased
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12
Q

Why has the economic cost associated with hazards significantly increased since 1960?

A
  • Increases in development as infrastructure in more developed countries is costlier to repair
  • Increasing number of insurance policies, especially in developed countries also increases the cost
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13
Q

Why is reporting disaster impacts (i.e fatalities) so hard?

A
  • Depends on whether you look at direct and/or indirect deaths + some impacts take time to be apparent
  • The location is important as rural and isolated areas are hard to reach, so it may be difficult to collect data from them. Data also may be difficult to collect in areas with a high population density
  • Different methods may be used by different organisations, so different sources might quote different stats
  • The number of deaths quoted by the government can be subject to bias
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14
Q

What’s an example of a governments disaster fatality quote being subject to bias?

A

During the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, the Burmese Governemtn declared there were no deaths in Burma.

  • This may be to try and show the government was doing a good job in terms of aid and protection etc.
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15
Q

The earth consists of what four sections?

A

Crust
Mantle
Inner core
Outer core

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16
Q

What is the crust also know as?

A

The lithosphere

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17
Q

Describe the crust:

A

The uppermost layer of the Earth
Thinnest, least dense and lightest layer
Oceanic crust and continental crust

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18
Q

How thick can ocean crust be?

A

7km

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19
Q

How thick can continental crust be?

A

70km

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20
Q

What is the mantle also known as?

A

Asthenosphere

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21
Q

What is the mantle mostly composed of?

A

Silicate rocks, rich in iron and magnesium

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22
Q

Describe the mantle:

A

Semi-molten
A temperature gradient near the core generates convection currents
Because of convection currents, the mantle circulates and may contribute to the lithosphere’s plate tectonic movement

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23
Q

How deep is the mantle below the crust?

A

700-2890km

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24
Q

Describe the outer core:

A

Dense, semi-molten rocks containing iron and nickel alloys

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25
Q

How deep below the crust is the outer core?

A

2890km to 5150km

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26
Q

Describe the inner core:

A

Similar composition to the outer core (dense, semi-molten rocks containing iron and nickel alloys)

Solid due to the extreme pressure it experiences

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27
Q

How far below the crust is the inner core?

A

Over 5150km

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28
Q

Why does the core have such a high temperature?

A
  • Primordial heat left over from the Earth’s formation
  • Radiogenic heat produced from radioactive decay
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29
Q

Describe the different plate boundaries:

A

Destructive plate
- Moving towards each other

Constructive plate
- Moving away from each other

Conservative plate
- Moving parallel to each other

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30
Q

What landforms are created at a constructive plate margin on continental / continental crust?

A

Rift valleys
Volcanos
Earthquakes

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31
Q

What landforms are created at a constructive plate margin on oceanic / oceanic crust?

A

Ocean ridges
Earthquakes
Volcanos

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32
Q

What are created at conservative plate margins?

A

Earthquakes

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33
Q

What landforms are created at a destructive plate margin on continental / continental crusts?

A

Fold mountains
Earthquakes

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34
Q

What landforms are created at a destructive plate margin on oceanic / oceanic crust?

A

Ocean trenches
Island arcs
Earthquakes
Volcanos

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35
Q

What landforms are created at a destructive plate margin on oceanic / continental crust?

A

Volcanos
Fold mountains
Earthquakes

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36
Q

Describe continental and oceanic destructive plate boundaries:

A
  • Denser oceanic plate subducts below the continental
  • The plate subducting leaves a deep oceanic trench
  • The oceanic crust is melted as it subducts into the asphenosphere
  • The extra magma created causes pressure to build up
  • Pressurised magma forces through weak spots in the continental plate
  • Explosive, high pressure volcanos erupt through the continental plate, known as composite volcanos
  • Fold mountains occur when sediment is pushed upwards during subduction
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37
Q

Describe oceanic and oceanic destructive plate boundaries?

A
  • Heavier plate subducts leaving an oceanic trench
  • Built up pressure causes underwater volcanos bursting through oceanic plate
  • Lava cools and creates new land called island arcs
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38
Q

Describe continental and continental destructive plate boundaries?

A
  • Both plates are not as dense as oceanic, so lots of pressure builds
  • Ancient oceanic crust is subducted slightly, but there is no subduction of continental crust
  • Pile up of continental crust on top of the lithosphere due to pressure between plates
  • Fold mountains formed from piles of continental crust
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39
Q

Describe oceanic and oceanic constructive plate boundaries:

A
  • Magma rises in the gap left by the two plates separating, forming new land when it cools
  • Less explosive underwater volcanos formed as magma rises
  • New land forming on the ocean floor by lava filling the gaps is known as sea floor spreading
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40
Q

What is the evidence for plate movement and sea floor spreading?

A

Paleomagnetism
- The study of rocks that shows the magnetic fields of the Earth

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41
Q

Explain paleomagnetism:

A
  • As new rock is formed and cools, the magnetic grains within the rocks align with the magnetic poles
  • Our poles switch periodically
  • Each time these switch, the new rock being formed at plate boundaries align in the opposite direction to the older rock
  • On the ocean floor either side of conservative plate boundaries, there are symmetrical bands of rock with alternating bands of magnetic polarity, which is evidence of seafloor spreading
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42
Q

Who theorised the evidence for seafloor spreading and plate movement?

A

Harry Hess

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43
Q

Describe continental to continental constructive plate boundaries?

A
  • Any land in the middle of the separation is forced apart, causing a rift valley
  • Volcanos form where the magma rises
  • Eventually, the gap will most likely fill with water and separate completely from the main island
  • The lifted areas of rocks are known as horsts whereas the valley itself is known as a graben
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44
Q

What are the forces that influence how convergent boundaries occur?

A

Ridge push
Slap pull

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45
Q

Describe ridge push:

A

The slope created when plates move apart has gravity acting upon it as it is at a higher elevation.

Gravity pushes the plates further away, widening the gap (as this movement is influenced by gravity it is known as gravitational sliding)

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46
Q

Describe slab pull:

A

When a plate subducts, the plate sinking into the mantle pulls the rest of the plate (slab) with it, causing further subduction

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47
Q

Describe conservative plate boundaries:

A

Between any crust, the plates move in different directions are at different speeds.
No plates are destroyed so no landforms are created
When these plates move, a lot of pressure is built up.
- On Oceanic crust, this movement can displace a lot of water.
- On continental crust, fault lines can occur where the ground is cracked by the movement

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48
Q

Describe oceanic crust:

A

Low density of rock
Mainly basalt
Thin
Newly created

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49
Q

Describe continental crust:

A

High density of rock
Mainly granite
Thick
Old

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50
Q

What does the density of a plate determine?

A

Whether the plate subducts or is forced upwards.

This will determine the landscape and hazards the margin is vulnerable to.

51
Q

What are the different mechanisms that can cause plate movement?

A

Mantle convection
Slab pull

52
Q

Describe mantle convection:

A

Radioactive elements in the core of the earth decay which produces a lot of thermal energy

  • This causes the lower mantle to heat up and rise, but as the magma rises it cools down and becomes more dense and begins to sink back down to the core
  • These are convection currents, which push the plates
53
Q

Who first theorised slab pull?

A

Dan McKenzie

54
Q

What is thought to be the main cause of plate movement?

A
  • It was initially thought to be convection currents, but now researchers believe its slab pull.
  • Convection currents seem too weak to move massively dense plates
55
Q

What happens when plates become stuck?

A
  • Convection currents in the asthenosphere continue to push, which builds the pressure
  • It builds so much that it cannot be sustained and the plates will give way.
  • All of this pressure is released in a sudden movement, causing a jolting motion in the plates
  • This jolt is responsible for seismic movement spreading throughout the ground in the form of seismic waves (or shock waves)
56
Q

What is the focus?

A
  • Also known as hypocentre
  • The point underground where the earthquake originates from
57
Q

What is the epicentre?

A

The area above ground that is directly above the focus

58
Q

Describe primary waves:

A

Travels through solids

Compressional

Vibrates in the direction of travel

Travels at 4-8 km/s

59
Q

Describe secondary waves:

A

Vibrate at right angles to direction of travel

Travels only though solid rocks

Travels at 2.5-4 km/hr

Most destructive because of large amplitude

60
Q

Describe Love waves:

A

Near to ground surface

Rolling motion producing vertical ground movement

Travels at 2-6 km/hr

Most destructive because of large amplitude

61
Q

Describe Rayleigh waves:

A

Vertical and horizontal displacement

Travels at 1-5 km/hr

Compressional

62
Q

How does intensity of waves change from the epicentre?

A

Intensity of waves will decrease further from the epicentre, as waves lose energy as they travel

63
Q

What factors affect a location’s vulnerability?

A

Geology

Geographical location (whether the earthquake occurs near the sea or intraplate)

Education of locals

Durability of buildings

Mitigation

64
Q

What are the secondary hazards of earthquakes?

A

Landslides

Tsunamis

Soil liquefaction

65
Q

Describe soil liquefaction:

A
  • Affects poorly compacted sand and silt
  • Water moisture within the soil separates from the soil particles and rises to the surface
  • This can cause the soil to behave like a liquid, which can cause building subsidence or landslides
66
Q

Describe landslides:

A
  • The shaking caused by the earthquake can weaken or damage cliff faces, hills and snow material
  • Unconsolidated materials or loose rocks can collapse
  • Landslides can travel several miles and accumulate material on the way
  • Risk varies with topography, rainfall, soil and land use
67
Q

Describe the formation of a tsunami:

A
  • When Oceanic crust is jolted during an earthquake, all of the water above this plate is displaced, normally upwards
  • The water is then pulled back down due to gravity. The energy is transferred into the water and travels through it like a wave
  • The water travels fast but with a low amplitude (height)
  • As it gets closer to the coast, the sea level decreases so there is friction between the sea bed and the waves
  • This causes the waves to slow down and gain height, creating a wall of water that is on average 10 feet high, but can reach 100
68
Q

Where do tsunamis normally form?

A

Generally in subduction zones at convergent plate margins

Most are found along the Pacific Ring of Fire

69
Q

What does the impact of a tsunami depend on? (8)

A

Population density of area hit

Coastal defences

Duration of the event

Wave amplitude and distance travelled

Gradient of the continental shelf

The shape of the land (bays will funnel and concentrate tsunamis)

Warning and evacuation systems

Level of economic and human development

70
Q

What are a volcanos primary hazards, and what do they tend to have?

A

They have a fast speed of onset
- Lava flows
- Pyroclastic flows
- Tephra and ash flows
- Volcanic gases

71
Q

Describe lava flows:

A
  • Streams of lava that have erupted onto the Earth’s surface
  • Fast flowing lava can be very dangerous- this depends on its viscosity (the explosivity and viscosity depends on its silicon dioxide content)
72
Q

Describe pyroclastic flows:

A
  • Mixture of hot dense rock, lava, ashes and gases which move very quickly along the surface of the Earth.
  • Due to their high speeds, pyroclastic flows are very dangerous and can cause asphyxiation for anyone caught in them
73
Q

Describe tephra and ash flows:

A
  • When pieces of ash and volcanic rock are blasted into the air
  • this can cause serious damage to buildings, which can collapse under the weight of ash or tephra
74
Q

Describe volcanic gases:

A
  • Gases like sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide are released into the atmosphere
  • Due to their potency, these gases can travel a long distance
75
Q

What are the secondary volcanic hazards and why do they occur?

A

Occur as a result of the heat produced by the volcano
- Lahars
- Jokulhlaup
- Acid rain

76
Q

What are lahars?

A
  • Combination of rock, mud and water which travel quickly down the sides of volcanos
  • These can occur when the heat of eruption causes snow and ice to melt, but also when an eruption coincides with heavy rainfall
77
Q

What is a jokulhlaup?

A
  • Snow and ice in glaciers melt after an eruption which causes sudden floods that are very dangerous
78
Q

Describe acid rain:

A
  • Caused when gases such as sulfur dioxide are released into the atmosphere
79
Q

What is a disaster described as?

A

A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or society involving human, material, economic and environmental losses which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources

80
Q

How can risk be calculated?

A

Risk = Hazard * Vulnerability / Capacity to cope

R= H*V/C

81
Q

Why might a place be at high risk?

A
  • Their capacity to cope is low
  • They are quite vulnerable
  • The hazard is large / high intensity
82
Q

What concept does Degg’s model show?

A
  • That hazards are not the same as natural disasters
  • A disaster will only occur when a vulnerable population is exposed to a hazard
  • If a population is not vulnerable, the hazard will not have a significant effect, thus the event will not be disastrous
83
Q

What are some ways to classify a tectonic hazard?

A

The volume of people affected

Economic cost of the disaster

Comparison to previous events, prediction models or average statistics for that location

84
Q

Describe classifying a hazard through looking at the volume affected:

A
  • The International Disaster Database classifies a disaster as an event where more than 100 people are affected , or more than 10 people die
85
Q

Describe classifying a hazard through looking at the economic cost:

A
  • Jobs lost, cost of repairs needed, economic productivity lost
86
Q

Describe classifying a hazard through comparing it to previous events and predictions:

A
  • Some events may be more severe than the average tectonic hazard , due to a series of factors coinciding (e.g bad weather and recent deforestation will worsen the impacts of a tsunami)
87
Q

What is the Park model?

A
  • A graphical representation of human responses to hazards.
  • The model shows the steps carried out in the recovery after a hazard, giving a rough indication of time frame.
88
Q

Describe features of the curve in the Park model:

A
  • The steepness shows how quickly an area deteriorates and then recovers
  • The depth of the curve shows the scale of the disaster
89
Q

What are the 3 stages in the Park model?

A

Stage 1- Relief
Stage 2- Rehabilitation
Stage 3- Reconstruction

90
Q

Describe Stage 1 of the Park model:

A
  • hours-days
  • Immediate local response - medical aid, search and rescue
  • Immediate appeal for foreign aid - the beginnings of global response
91
Q

Describe Stage 2 of the Park model:

A
  • days-weeks
  • Services begin to be restored
  • Temporary shelters and hospitals set up
  • Food and water distributed
  • Co-ordinated foreign aid (such as peacekeeping)
92
Q

Describe Stage 3 of the Park model:

A
  • weeks-years
  • Restoring the area to the same or better quality of life
  • Area back to normal- ecosystem restored, crops regrown
  • Infrastructure rebuilt
  • Mitigation efforts for future event
93
Q

What is the Pressure and Release (PAR) model?

A
  • Used to analyse factors which cause a population to be vulnerable to a hazard
  • On one side of the model is the natural hazard itself, and on the other side, different factors and processes, which increase a populations vulnerability to the hazard
  • This vulnerability is often rooted in social processes
94
Q

Describe the social processes that vulnerability is rooted in?

A
  • Dynamic and everchanging, and are often unrelated to the hazard itself (e.g poverty, poor governance)
95
Q

Why is the PAR model complex?

A
  • No two hazards are the same, and the factors leading to vulnerability are interconnected and hard to measure.
96
Q

What three sections is the progression of vulnerability split into in the PAR model?

A

Root causes:
- often caused by economic, demographic and/or political processes , often affecting large populations or entire countries

Dynamic processes:
- local economic or political factors that can affect a community or an organisation

Unsafe conditions
- The physical conditions that affect an individual (unsafe building, low income, poor health etc.)

97
Q

What are the different ways vulnerability can be defined?

A

Physical
Economic
Social
Knowledge
Environmental

98
Q

Describe physical vulnerability:

A

Individuals live in a hazard-prone area, with little protection naturally or through mitigation

99
Q

Describe economic vulnerability:

A
  • People risk losing their employment, wealth or assets during a hazard.
  • MEDCs tend to be more economically vulnerable than LEDCs
100
Q

Describe social vulnerability:

A

Communities are unable to support their disadvantaged or most vulnerable, leaving them at risk to hazards.

101
Q

Describe knowledge vulnerability:

A

Individuals lack training or warning to know the risks of a hazard, or how to safely evacuate.

  • Alternatively, religion and beliefs may limit their understanding of hazards- e.g hazards are an act of God, so individuals don’t mitigate or evacuate (known as fatalist belief)
102
Q

Describe environmental vulnerability:

A

A community’s risk to a hazard is increased due to high population density in the area

103
Q

Give an example of factors in the PAR model leading to a populations vulnerability:

A

Unsafe living conditions:
- A lack of infrastructure can worsen the impacts of a hazard (such as poor sewage management)

Dynamic pressure:
- The lack of infrastructure may be due to rapid urbanisation, where little planning has been taken to safely construct infrastructure to cope with the rising population.

Root cause:
- Planning and controlling safe population is the government’s responsibility, so the root cause of this disaster may be weak governance.

104
Q

What are common root causes in the PAR model:

A
  • Weak governance
  • Mismanagement by Industry, NGO’s or IGOs
  • High reliance on products easily affected by hazards
105
Q

What are common dynamic pressures in the PAR model?

A
  • Lack of training / knowledge in locals
  • Rapid urbanisation
  • Poor communication between government and locals
  • Natural environment degraded
  • Lack of basic services
106
Q

What are some common Unsafe Living Conditions in the PAR model?

A
  • Lack of infrastructure
  • Dangerous location of settlements
  • No warning system for locals
  • Disease and fire can easily spread between households
107
Q

What do hazard profiles do and how are they helpful?

A
  • Compare the physical characteristics which all hazards share
  • Hazard profiles can help decision makers when deciding where to allocate the most human and financial resources
108
Q

What do the characteristics of a hazard profile include?

A

Frequency
- how often it happens

Magnitude
- How extensive an area the event could affect

Duration
- How long the event lasts

Speed of onset
- How much warning time before event occurs

Fatalities
- Number of deaths caused

Economic loss
- Value of assets damaged, lack of industry or economic productivity, insurance policies

Spatial predictability
- The predictability of where would be affected

109
Q

How can you evaluate the effectiveness of hazard models?

A
  • Can they be applied to every hazard? Do some require a more complex model?
  • Does the model take any aspects of hazards into account such as level of development?
  • Is there any timeframe?
  • Could the model be less vague / include more steps that can be applied to all hazards.
  • Does the model present hazards currently? Are there any alterations that could be made to account for hazards affected by climate change?
110
Q

How can you measure tectonic events?

A

Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)

The Modified Mercalli Scale

Moment Magnitude Scale

Richter scale

111
Q

What is the VEI?

A

Volcanic Explosivity Index
- Measures the relative explosiveness of a volcanic eruption

  • Based on the height of ejected material and duration of eruption
  • Scale goes from 0-8 and is logarithmic (increase of 1 on the scale indicates a 10 times more powerful eruption)
112
Q

What is the Modified Mercalli Scale?

A
  • Measures the destructiveness of an earthquake
  • It is a relative scale as people would feel different amounts of shaking in different places
  • It is subjective as its based on if people wake up, if furniture moves , how much damage structures receive
  • The scale varies from I to XII

I= generally not felt by or detected on seismographs
XII- nearly total destruction

  • It doesn’t consider economic, social and environmental impact
113
Q

What is the Moment Magnitude Scale?

A
  • Measures the amount of energy released in an earthquake
  • Scale from 0-9
  • It’s a simple measure, so environmental or social impacts must be inferred
114
Q

What is the Richter scale?

A
  • Measures the amplitude of the waves produced during an earthquake
  • Most widely used scale, as it’s absolute
  • Must infer social or environmental impacts, which can be misleading. The highest Richter scale earthquake readings wont necessarily be the worst disasters
  • Like the VEI, its scale is logarithmic
115
Q

How can hazards be responded to?

A

Prevention
Preparedness
Mitigation
Adaptation

116
Q

Describe prevention for a volcanic hazard:

A
  • Volcanic eruptions can’t be prevented
  • Only the risk to people can be prevented by not allowing people near volcanic hazards
117
Q

Describe preparedness for volcanic hazards:

A
  • Monitoring increases the notice of volcanic eruptions, meaning warnings can be given out
  • Education on volcanoes in areas of risk so people know what to do
  • Evacuation procedures planned
  • Training response teams
118
Q

Describe mitigation for volcanic hazards:

A
  • Direct intervention to the volcano, e.g concrete blocks to steer lava away from at risk areas
  • Strengthening buildings that are at risk of mudlfows or ash pileup
  • Evacuation and exclusion zones
  • Mitigating effects on health by having emergency aid and rescue
119
Q

Describe adaptation for volcanic hazards?

A
  • Move away from area at risk
  • Capitalise on opportunities, such as encouraging tourism
  • Change profession so it is less likely to be affected by volcanic hazards.
120
Q

What does the Hazard Management Cycle show?

A
  • The stages of responding to events, showing how the same stages take place after every hazard
121
Q

What stages take place in the Hazard Management Cycle?

A

Preparedness
- Being ready for an event to occur (public awareness, education, training)

Response
- Immediate action taken after event (evacuation, medical assistance, rescue)

Recovery
- Long-term responses (restoring services, reconstruction)

Mitigation
- Strategies to lessen effects of another hazard (barriers, warning signals developed, observatories)

122
Q

How can scientists try and detect signs of an imminent eruption in a volcano?

A

Small earthquakes called tremors

Changes to the top surface of the volcano as it swells when magma builds up

Changes to the tilt as the slope angle changes when magma builds up

123
Q

What are examples of short-term recovery?

A
  • Providing aid, food, water, shelter
  • Providing financial assistance so people can rebuild their livelihoods
124
Q

What are examples of long-term recovery?

A
  • Rebuilding homes
  • Building and repairing infrastructure
  • Reopening schools and businesses

Geography Paper 1 (6 decks)

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