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Development and Language > TB9 - Social and Emotional Development > Flashcards

TB9 - Social and Emotional Development Flashcards

1
Q

Why is having a sense of self important?

A

We need to be able to move around the world and understand the limits of our bodies
We need to understand our ability and potential

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2
Q

What did James (1890) say about the self?

A

The existential self is the awareness of one’s personal existence

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3
Q

What did Rochat (1998) find with regards to the self?

A

From the age of 2 months infants will wiggle their foot to move a mobile, suggesting they have the understanding of where their body ends and where their interaction with the world can start.

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4
Q

What did Tronic (1970) find when using the Still Face Paradigm?

A

Infants become upset if their behaviour stops having an effect on their interaction partner.

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5
Q

What is Lewis and Brooks-Gunn’s (1979) the Rouge Test?

A

Infants are placed in front of a mirror with some red paint on their forehead and they are tested on whether they interact with themselves in the mirror.

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6
Q

What did Lewis, Sullivan, Stanger and Weiss (1989) find with regards to the Rouge Test?

A

Infants who recognised themselves in the mirror were more likely to experience the emotion of embarrassment in other tasks.

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7
Q

What did Repacholi and Gopnik (1997) find with regards to infants understanding another’s thoughts and preferences?

A

Using infants that prefer crackers to broccoli, they tested whether infants would understand that someone else preferred the broccoli and give them their choice. After an experimenter expressed a preference for broccoli, 14 month olds didn’t understand and still gave them the cracker, whilst 18 months old understood and passed them the broccoli.

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8
Q

What did Sani and Bennett (2009) find with regards to children’s ability to understand ingroup vs outgroup.

A

They asked children to put traits in the categories “the self”, “in-group” and “out-group”. When asked to recall where they put the traits, there was more confusion between the self and the ingroup compared to the outgroup, suggesting that they understood the concepts.

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9
Q

What did Keller find with regards to self-construal in children?

A

Children from interdependent cultures draw themselves smaller relative to others.

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10
Q

What did Over and Uskul (2016) find with regards to self-construal in children?

A

Children from interdependent cultures draw themselves closer to their peers.

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11
Q

What did Rubeling (2011) find with regards to self-construal in children?

A

Children from Cameroon drew themselves as smaller compared to their family, whilst children in Germany drew themselves roughly the same size.

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12
Q

What did Keller (2016) find with regards to parent influence on independence vs interdependence.

A

In Western cultures, infants receive intensive and exclusive attention from their parents, and Keller argues that praise for the infant fosters their individuality.
In the interdependent culture of Cameroon, infants are embedded in a dense network from birth. They are close to caregivers without being the centre of attention, and raised believing cooperation is essential.

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13
Q

What did Cox (1992) find with regards to body awareness in children?

A

When asked to draw portraits, infants could draw faces before other body parts.
Between the ages of 3-4 children do not seem to differentiate between heads and bodies.

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14
Q

What did Thompson (1997) find when surveying children on their own body size?

A

Even children of 9 years old wanted to be slimmer than they were.

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15
Q

What did Kelly (2005) find with regards to parental influence on body satisfaction?

A

Children were more likely to develop a evaluation of their shape and attractiveness if parents talked about bodies in terms of physical health rather than weight.

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16
Q

What is self-esteem?

A

A person’s evaluation of their own worth

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17
Q

Which two mindsets did Dweck identify with regards to children’s belief about their own potential?

A

Fixed Mindset:
Caused by praising children for abilities such as telling them they are clever, and so when they do badly on a test they think they are not as clever anymore.

Growth Mindset:
Cause by praising children for effort, so if they do badly on a test they assume they did not put enough effort in and try harder for the next test.

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18
Q

What did Engelmann (2013) find with regards to self-presentation in 5 year olds?

A

They were more likely to help their interaction partner in a game involving stickers when being watched, but more likely to steal their partners stickers when not being watched.

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19
Q

What is prosocial behaviour?

A

Behaviour that benefits someone else at the cost to the self

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20
Q

What is reciprocity vs indirect reciprocity?

A

Reciprocity: Person A helps Person B, so Person B helps Person A in the future.

Indirect Reciprocity: Person A helps Person B, then Person C helps Person A.

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21
Q

What did Warneken and Tomasello (2006) find with regards to prosociality in infants?

A

Infants were seen to try and help in situations when they could

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22
Q

What is empathy, and what did Simner (1971) find with regards to empathy in young children?

A

Empathy is when we feel how others feel.

Young infants cry when they hear another infant crying, and they are more upset but another infant than a recording of themselves crying, suggesting it is not just responding to a stimulus.

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23
Q

What is sympathy?

A

When we feel concern for others

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24
Q

What did Zahn-Waxler (1992) find with regards to sympathy in infants?

A

When viewing their mother in distress they often tried to physically comfort her as well as give verbal comfort and advice. They tried to give her toys and food.

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25
Q

What did Vaish (2009) find with regards to sympathy in infants?

A

Young children were more likely to help a confederate when she lost her balloon after viewing someone being mean to her.

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26
Q

What is guilt?

A

When we feel remorse at a wrongdoing. It can motivate prosocial behaviour.

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27
Q

What did Vaish (2016) find with regards to guilt and prosocial behaviour in toddlers?

A

Three year olds were more likely to repair damage (knocking over blocks etc) if it was their fault compared to if it was an experimenter’s fault

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28
Q

What did Tangney and Dearing (2002) find with regards to guilt in young children?

A

Children in the fifth grade prone to guilt were less likely to be arrested or convicted in adolescence, as well as less likely to abuse drugs.

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29
Q

What did Hammond (2011) find with regards to parents influence on prosociality?

A

Parents can influence prosocial behaviour through modelling of empathic and responsive behaviour, and through direct instruction.

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30
Q

What did Zahn-Waxler (1992) find with regards to parents influence on prosociality?

A

Warm and sensitive responding to children’s needs has been established as a contributor to empathic and prosocial behaviour in 1 and 2 year olds.

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31
Q

What is aggression?

A

Behaviour that intentionally harms other people through pain or injury.

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32
Q

What is relational aggression?

A

Behaviour that intentionally upsets another person (social excluding, ridiculing).

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33
Q

What did Crick (1997) find with regards to child aggression in classrooms?

A

Children high in aggression were low in prosocial behaviour, with those who were particularly aggressive rejected by peers.
Children higher in negative emotions were more likely to be aggressive.

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34
Q

What did Moffit (1996) find with regards to anti-social behaviour and development?

A

Boys who were consistently anti-social in childhood and adolescence were found to have had difficult behaviour at the age of three, and showed impairments in verbal functioning and mental flexibility.

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35
Q

What are callous and unemotional traits?

A

Traits like limited empathy, a lack of guilt and a shallow affect.

36
Q

What did Viding (2005) find with regards to genetic and anti-social behaviour?

A

Anti-social behaviour with a high amount of callous and unemotional traits was found to be strongly heritable, whilst anti-social behaviour with low levels of these traits was explained by environmental factors. This provides evidence for a genetic factor in psychopathy.

37
Q

How is it suggested that nutrition links with antisocial behaviour?

A

Poor nutrition leads to a negative impact on brain structure and function which in turn can be a risk factor for antisocial behaviour.

38
Q

What did Hibbeln (2001) find with regards to fish consumption and antisocial behaviour?

A

Fish consumption across the world is negatively correlated with homicide rates.

39
Q

What did Raine (2014) find with regards to Omega-3 consumption and antisocial behaviour?

A

Children were given a fruit drink to have daily either with or without omega-3 in for six weeks.
Results found that callous-unemotional traits were lower in the Omega-3 foup even 6 and 12 months after the experiment ended.

40
Q

What is moral:
Judgement?
Behaviour?
Emotion?

A

Moral Judgement: Distinguishing between right and wrong

Moral Behaviour: Acting on the distinction between right and wrong to bring positive benefits to others.

Moral Emotion: The tendency to feel pride in good conduct, or guilt/shame over conduct that violate’s ones own moral principles.

41
Q

What did Piaget find with regards to children’s understanding of morality?

A

Children were shown a child that accidentally broke 15 cups, or a child is intentionally naughty and breaks 1 cup.
Younger children rate the negative outcome more harshly, whilst older children rate the negative intention more harshly - the ability to reason using intention develops around the age of 10.

42
Q

What is Kohlberg known for?

A

Presenting levels of morality that we move up as we grow and mature.

43
Q

What are critiques for Kohlber’s levels or morality?

A

Just because higher levels of cognition are associated with higher levels or moral reasoning, it does not mean this leads to more moral actions.
He only tested Western males - morality differs throughout cultures and communities.

44
Q

How does “play” develop?

A

Parents and adults are more important for interactions in the early part of life, but peers become more interesting around the age of two.

45
Q

What is sensorimotor play?

A

Using objects such as banging them together or rolling it along the ground to make an interesting noise.

46
Q

What are the benefits of play fighting?

A

Benefits physical development but does not lead to aggression

47
Q

What did Pellegrini (2006) find with regards to boys and play fighting?

A

Boys who play fight at younger ages tend to be more popular and have a wider variety of strategies for solving social problems

48
Q

What did Haight and Miller (1993) find with regards to pretend play?

A

75% of pretend play was social, and it occurred first with parents and later with peers

49
Q

What did Salde (187) find with regards to parental influence on pretend play?

A

Complexity of play increased when the mother engaged.

50
Q

What did Dockett (1998) find with regards to pretend play and theory of mind?

A

Results showed that training 4 year olds in pretend play increased the frequency and complexity of group pretences, as well as improving their performance on theory of mind tests.

51
Q

What is a benefit to imaginary friends?

A

Preventing loneliness in children

52
Q

What did Bigelow and La Gaipa (1980) find with regards to changes in friendship with age?

A

6-8 year olds talk about friendship in terms of common activities and living nearby.
9-10 year olds talk about shared values
11 to 12 year olds talk about self-disclosure and shared interests

53
Q

What did Hartup (1996) find with regards to friends and conflict?

A

They engage in conflicts at the same rates of non-friends but are much better at resolving conflicts quickly and more amicably.

54
Q

What are the four suggested categories that children fit in within their class?

A

Popular (High on liked most, low on liked least)
Rejected (High on liked least, low on liked most)
Controversial (High on liked most and liked least)
Neglected (Low on both)

55
Q

What did Dodge (1983) find with regards to how children join ongoing play with their peers?

A

Popular children wait and watch, then start to make group-orientated statements.
Rejected children try to include themselves by disrupting group activity.
Neglected children just wait and watch.

56
Q

What did Bagwell (1998) find out with regards to peer rejection predictions?

A

Peer rejection could predict having a poorer job, and lower aspirations and performance. Having friends predicted higher self-esteem.

57
Q

How can bullying be measured?

A 
Teacher/parent report
Self-report
Focus groups
Peer nominations
Observations
58
Q

What did Hawker and Boulton (2000) find with regards to the effects of bullying?

A

A meta-analysis showed that being bullied was strongly correlated with depression, and moderately correlated with low self-esteem.

59
Q

What did Baldry and Farrington (2000) find with regards to school bullies?

A

They are four times more likely to become chronic offenders

60
Q

What did Churtner-Smith (2010) suggest was a source of bullying?

A

Family factors such as insecure attachment as well as harsh physical discipline and maltreatment at home.

61
Q

What does the DSM define Autism as?

A

Impairments in social interaction and communication

Repetitive behaviour within a narrow set of interest

62
Q

What link did Pierce (2011) find with autism and a preferential looking paradigm?

A

Infants who go on to be diagnosed in autism prefer looking at geometric shapes than social stimuli.

63
Q

What did Charman (1997) find with regards to autism and joint attention?

A

Children with autism were less likely to engage in join attention and less likely to point for others.

64
Q

What did Klin (2002) find with regards to autism and eye contact?

A

Children with autism pay less attention to other people’s eyes and have trouble detecting when people are making eye contact

65
Q

What did Jarrold (2013) find with regards to autism and pretend play?

A

Children with autism do not engage in spontaneous pretend play.

66
Q

What did Howlin (2004) find with regards to autism and friendship?

A

Over 50% of the adult population with ASD report having on particular friends.

67
Q

What is the difference between biological sex and gender?

A

Biological sex refers to the physical anatomy of the reproductive system, as well as different chromosomes and hormone levels. Gender refers to social roles, behaviours and activities deemed appropriate for men and women.
People choose gender through self-definition so it may not always align with biological sex.

68
Q

What did Slaby and Frey (1975) find when testing children on recognising gender?

A

When shown pictures of young boys and girls, children as young as two could point at the one matching their biological sex.

69
Q

What is gender consistency and when is it thought to develop?

A

This is the belief that gender does not change over time.

Slaby and Frey (1975) say that it develop by the age of 3 and 4.

70
Q

What did Langolis and Downs (1980) find with regards to fathers and gender stereotyped play?

A

Fathers respond more positively to their children when playing with gender stereotypical toys
Boys are punished more harshly than girls for counter-stereotypical behaviour.

71
Q

What did Hamilton’s (2006) analysis of children’s books in the USA reveal?

A

Females are presented as nurturing roles more often and see in the home more often than outside of it. Females appear to have no occupation outside of the home.

72
Q

How are transgender children labelled in a young age according to Zucker (1999)?

A

They are diagnosed with gender dysphoria and are considered as having slow development in gender understanding.

73
Q

What did Olsen (2012) find with regards to gender expression with transgenders?

A

Children who consider themselves a different gender to their biological sex show no differences in responses to controls matched for gender identity. This shows that they are not “confused or pretending”, they are showing responses typical of their expressed identity.

74
Q

Give examples of gender bias against females

A

Goldin (2014): Females earn roughly 70% to that of their male counterpart
Moss-Racusin (2012): Females are less likely to be chosen for University positions even when CVs are equivalent.
MacNell (2015): When students think the instructor is female, they rate them as a poorer teacher.

75
Q

What did Leinbach (1997) find with regards to age and stereotyping?

A

Stereotyping increases with age when children were asked to categorise objects between girls and boys.

76
Q

How does gender preference change over time?

A

Yee and Brown (1994) found that 2 year olds verbally express preference for their own gender.
However, by adulthood, both men and women report a more positive attitude towards females.

77
Q

What does ambivalent sexism refer to?

A

When women receive positive evaluations such as warm and nurturing, but also more negative ones in the work place context.

78
Q

What did Liben (2001) find with regards to categorising jobs by gender?

A

Males are given more typically leadership, strength and intelligence based roles such as doctor, banker, farmer, CEO, whilst females were given jobs such as model, babysitter, nurse, dental assistant, secretary. Women’s jobs were rated as lower status.

79
Q

What did Kinzler and Spelke (2011) find with regards to racial bias in children?

A

10 month olds were equally likely to accept a toy from a black woman or white woman.

80
Q

What did Shutts (2013) find with regards to racial bias in children?

A

That whilst 3 year olds preferred pictures of their same gender, they were equally likely to prefer both people of differing race.

81
Q

What did McLoughlin (2016) find with regards to the ingroup bias in children?

A

5 year old children didn’t show a different in rating faces as human between those from York or from far away. However, 6 year olds then rated those from York as more human.
Children generally preferred people from York in both ages.

82
Q

What did Paluck (2011) find with regards to reducing intergroup bias?

A 
Children in high schools were taught about the effect of prejudice. They were also trained in intervening when classmates express prejudice. 
Five months after the training results showed that the students who received it were more likely to be nominated as people to confront prejudice, and the training had spread to friends and peers, altering class atmosphere.
83
Q

What did Wilson (2002) find with regards to violence in TV shows?

A

Violence occurs more frequently in children’s TV shows than any other genre of programmes.

84
Q

Why might observing TV violence lead to aggressive behaviour?

A

Children may become aggressive through imitation
Children may become desensitised to the negative consequences of aggression
Violence might become associated with positive feelings, or teach children aggressive ways to deal with social situations

85
Q

What did children exposed to violent TV programmes show?

A

They behaved more aggressively towards each other and other objects immediately after watching

86
Q

What did Huesmann and Eron (2003) do with regards to the effect of childhood TV violence, and what did they find?

A

What did they do?
They followed up on their original study looking at how TV habits in first grade predicts aggressive behaviour in third grad. The follow up occurred 15 years later.
They used the same participants and measured their aggression through self-report, and reports from other people and previous data.

What did they find?
They found that TV violence viewed in childhood predicted adult aggression 15 years later, with a slightly higher effect on males.

Development and Language (2 decks)

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