Task 8- Consciousness

Question 1

How could you define altered states of consciousness (ASC) objectively?

Answer 1

Defining them by the way they are induced or by the physiology associated with them -> not satisfactory

Question 2

How could you define ASC subjectively?

Answer 2

=qualitative alternations in the overall pattern of mental functioning e.g. experiencer feels his consciousness is radically different from the way it functions ordinarily

Question 3

What are problems of defining them subjectively?

Answer 3

• this definition raises several issues: difficult to define a normal state of consciousness, difficult to decide whether others are experiencing an ASCs based on their behaviour;
• difficult to describe as different people have different prior experiences, different expectations, and different ways of describing things

Question 4

So, how should we begin studying C then?

Answer 4

by studying how ASCs change functions (e.g. attention, memory, arousal)

Question 5

What are the two dimensions of attention that it can change along?

Answer 5

(1) direction, as it can be directed inwards or outwards, which can be induced either by reducing sensory input or overloading it
(2) focus, which can be broadly or narrowly focused

Question 6

How can memory be used to study C?

Answer 6

–linked with effects on thinking and emotion

a. Mind-altering drugs – reduce STM span which has a debilitating effect on conversation but creates more focused attention on here-and-now
b. Time perception changes are linked with changes in Memory

Question 7

How can arousal be used to study C?

Answer 7

– can either decrease or increase; changes affect every aspect of mental functioning

a. Meditation –> some states are characterized by low arousal and deep relaxation
b. Ritual practices –> some states are characterized by high arousal

Question 8

What is a phenomenal space/phenospace?

Answer 8

Complex multidimensional space within which all possible ASCs can be found

Question 9

Which three dimensions does Hobson’s AIM model have?

Answer 9

(1) activation energy, which is similar to arousal and can be measured by EEG
(2) input source, which can vary between entirely external or entirely internal sources of Information
(3) mode, which is the ratio of amines to cholines
- -> any area can be occupied

Question 10

When are amine and when are choline neurotransmitters prevalent?

Answer 10

• Waking: amine neurotransmitters dominate and are essential for rational thought, volition, and directing attention
• REM sleep: cholines dominate and thinking becomes delusional, irrational, and unreflective

Question 11

Does meditation induce ASCs according to Tart’s subjective definition?

Answer 11

• meditation does induce ASCs because people feel that their mental functioning has been radically altered
• meditation gradually changes the neural structures of the brain -> advanced meditators may reach states that are unique to meditative practice

Question 12

How is the claim that meditation induces ASCs supported?

Answer 12

supported by the combination of increased synchronicity in both low-frequency oscillations and gamma activity in experienced meditators

Question 13

What do Thomans and Cohen argue about meditation and ASCs?

Answer 13

d-ASC (=discrete AC) in meditation should be expressed in discrete states of certain brain networks

• -> discrete states should be observable as changes in functional connectivity away from a defined baseline state in dominant brain networks
• correlation of specific d-ASCs with specific changes in brain activity

Question 14

Can dreaming be defined as an ASC?

Answer 14

Yes (Mutz article)

Question 15

What does the activation-synthesis hypothesis say about dreaming?

Answer 15

dreaming results from rapid eye movement (REM)

Question 16

What do recent theories suggest about dreams?

Answer 16

• that dreams fulfil an adaptive function related to emotion-regulation, learning and memory consolidation
• consensus that consciousness exists but ongoing debate on whether consciousness exists during dreamless sleep as well

Question 17

Does dreaming vary in the different stages of sleep?

Answer 17

Dreaming during different stages of sleep varies in terms of (1) phenomenological characteristics, (2) and consciousness

Question 18

What is the continuum that the differences in conscious experience between dreaming and wakefulness can be placed along?

Answer 18

(1) no consciousness
(2) primary consciousness, simple awareness of perception and emotion
(3) self-reflective awareness, abstract thinking, volition, and metacognition (also referred to as secondary, higher-order, or self-consciousness)

Question 19

How is one’s C when one is dreaming?

Answer 19

• they are consciously aware of their internal world to some extent but fail to recognize their own condition
• dreaming represents an offline, internally generated simulation of the waking consciousness -> dreams can be seen as a purer form of consciousness as they are free of the constraints imposed by perception and interaction with physical environments

Question 20

What is REM sleep characterized by in terms of physiological measures?

Answer 20

(1) global high-frequency and low amplitude EEG activity (similar to waking state)
(2) increased heart rate
(3) respiratory activity
(4) temporary muscular paralysis
- -> people more likely to report dreams after awakening from REM Sleep

Question 21

What is REM sleep characterized by?

Answer 21

• particularly rich, emotional, and perceptually vivid
• loose, fanciful, and bizarre narratives, and reflect interests, personality, mood, and draw on long-term Memory
• often uncertain about time, space, personal identities, and often has the subjective experience of being awake
• perceptual experiences are similar to wakefulness

Question 22

What is altered in REM sleep that is different from waking life?

Answer 22

• sensory distortions, misidentifications of characters and places, changes in spatio-temporal integration, mis-binding of objects’ features, dissociations, and transpositions whereby dreamer experiences frequent and abrupt changes in dream narrative
• REM dreams contain more emotional contents

Question 23

What are REM dreams like?

-Which kind of C do they show?

Answer 23

• show aspects of primary but not secondary consciousness –> less metacognitive activity, reflective thought, and volitional capabilities
• limited access to information about the past and anticipated future and typically concerns himself exclusively with the present content of the dream narrative
• some reports do involve reflective thought

Question 24

What is similar in REM sleep and wakefulness neurologically?

Answer 24

• EEG signal similar

- global brain metabolism tends to be very similar

Question 25

Which brain regions are particularly active during REM sleep?

Answer 25

1. Higher-order occipito-temporal visual association areas
2. Motor regions (primary motor, premotor cortices, cerebellum and basal ganglia)
3. Pontine tegmentum, thalamus, basal forebrain
4. Limbic and paralimbic structures (amygdala, hippocampus, anterior cingulate cortex)
5. Medial PFC, circuits of medial temporal lobe, and posterior cingulate cortex – memory and self-referential processing -> high overlap with default mode network (DMN) activity

Question 26

Which structures show decreased levels of activity during REM Sleep?

Answer 26

• Right inferior parietal cortex

- Executive regions of PFC

Question 27

What could explain why phenomenological experience of REM is much more diverse than N-REM?

Answer 27

A range of subcortical and neocortical structures are active during both waking and REM, but not during N-REM

Question 28

What can N-REM sleep be divided into?

Answer 28

• three different stages called N1, N2, and N3

- N3: deep sleep or slow-wave sleep

Question 29

How is N-REM sleep characterized physiologically?

Answer 29

• (1) a global low frequency and high amplitude EEG signal (distinct from waking state)
• (2) slow, regular breathing and heart rate
• (3) low blood pressure

Question 30

What is the sleep onset phase characterized by?

Answer 30

individuals frequently experience hypnagogic hallucinations while being unaware that they have already fallen asleep -> emotional flatness, are often static, and involve no self-character

Question 31

What are N-REM dreams like?

Answer 31

After sleep-onset, NREM dreams are typically more thought-like, fragmentary, and related to current concerns -> dreams are more conceptual, more plausible, and typically involve greater volitional control

Question 32

What are late night N-REM sleep reports like?

Answer 32

Late night NREM sleep reports are usually longer and more hallucinatory, often being indistinguishable from REM sleep reports.

Question 33

Lucid dreaming

Answer 33

• rare state
• individual is aware or conscious
• typically part of NREM sleep
• skill, has to be learned
• free will

Question 34

Dream amnesia

Answer 34

We often forget our dreams

Question 35

What kind of C does one have in lucid dreaming?

Answer 35

hybrid state of consciousness with features of both waking and dreaming -> involves combined aspects of primary and secondary consciousness

Question 36

What was found about self-determination in lucid dreaming?

Answer 36

Self-determination – subjective experience of acting freely according to one’s will; similar for lucid dreaming and wakefulness; reduced in periods of non-lucid dreaming

Question 37

What was found about planning ability in lucid dreaming?

Answer 37

how well-organized one pursues plans and intentions; was impaired during both non-lucid and lucid dreaming

Question 38

What was found about intention enactment in lucid dreaming?

Answer 38

how promptly and determined intentions are executed; was most pronounced during lucid dreaming and did not differ between wakefulness and non-lucid dreaming

Question 39

What was found about secondary consciousness in lucid dreaming?

Answer 39

insight, control over thought and actions, logical thought; non-lucid REM sleep dreamers lack features of secondary consciousness as it is the defining characteristic of dream lucidity

Question 40

Where was increased activity found in lucid dreaming?

Answer 40

increased activity in areas such as DLPFC, bilateral frontopolar prefrontal cortex, and parietal areas including the precuneus, inferior parietal lobules, and supramarginal gyrus

Question 41

What could fronto-parietal activity correspond to in lucid dreaming?

Answer 41

to the re-instantiation of reflective capabilities which induces features of secondary consciousness (metacognitive evaluation and self-referential processing)