Task 1

Question 1

What is real science? Name 7 characteristics

Answer 1

empirical (erfahrungsgemäß)
evidence from observations made under controlled conditions

rational (sinnvoll)
consistent with established facts and free of logical errors

testable
has to have possible outcomes that disprove the explanation

parsimonious (sparsam)
the simplest explanation with fewest assumptions

general
explanation holds under many ciricumstances

tentative (vorläifig)
confidence in explanation, but openness to revise if proven wrong

rigorously (streng)
peer reviewed and under constant pressure to be replaced by better explanation

Question 2

What are pseudoscience? Name 5 characteristics

Answer 2

situation specific
- cannot be falsfied (verfälscht)

vague (ungenau) studies
-cannot be relicated

no  exploration (Untersuchung) of mechanisms
-no progress in knowledge

strong personal interest

relies on persuasion (Überzeugung) through

• impressive- sounding jargon
• authority
• belief/ faith

Question 3

Name 4 ways why science could get wrong?

Answer 3

Common- Sense Explantaions

Circular Explanations / Tautology

Method of Authority

Rational Method

Question 4

Why are common-sense explanations wrong? Name 3 reasons

Answer 4

incomplete

inconsistent with other evidence

lacking generality

“This information has been passed down from generations. Because it is so old it must be true.”

Question 5

What does a circular explanation / tautology not have? Name 2 things

Answer 5

independent measure
explanatory concept

“I am angry when I’m hungry. But it is ok, because hungry people get angry.”

Question 6

Name 2 problems which can appear by using the method of authority

Answer 6

possible bias

often accepted without questioning

“This is the best toothpaste available!” Dr.med.Reinard

Question 7

Name 4 steps (X&Y) you go through by making a scientific method

Answer 7

1. Observation & Induction
2. Hypothesis & Deduction
3. Observing & Exerimenting
4. Referring & Retesting

Question 8

Whats the problem by using the rational method?

Answer 8

True assumptions produce true statements but few assumptions are 100% true

can lead to testable questions

I. All students in Maastricht have bikes.
II. Merle is a student in Maastricht.
C. Merle must have a bike

Question 9

1. Observation & Induction

Answer 9

initial point of interest

2 observable/ measurable variables

using induction - Einführung specific to general
“Lena’s bike has flowers. Girls like bikes with flowers.”

data driven

Question 10

2. Hypothesis & Deduction

Answer 10

Hypothesis: testable, falsifiable, positive, parsimonious

using deduction - Schlussfolgerung
general to specific

“Girls like bikes with flowers.
Girls tend to choose a bike with flowers.”

Theory driven

Question 11

3. Observing & Experimenting

Answer 11

observation to test validity

choosing type of research (correlational, quasi-experimental, experimental)

Question 12

4. Refining (Verfeinerung) & Retesting

Answer 12

adjusting (anpassen) hypothesis

repeat testing

Question 13

What should a good theory have or do?

Name 5 characteristics

Answer 13

parsimony

Explanatory relevance
(logical link between theory and what is to be tested)

Testability
(possiblity of failing an empirical test)

account for (most) data

prediction of novel events

Question 14

What should you keep in mind by testing a theory?

Name 3 things

Answer 14

Strong Inference: ruling out alternative explanations, until only one remains

Confirmation: Only use in starting phase
Disconfirmation: Trying to find an outcome that proves the theory wrong. If this is not achieved the theory is strong

Question 15

Ethics
By doing a scientific research you should inform your participant about several things
name 6

Answer 15

Knowledge over nature, purpose and duration of research

ability to withdraw with foreseeable consequences

foreseeable risks

prospective research benefits

confidentiality (anonymity)

contact person in case of question

Question 16

What should you keep in mind about your final notes?

Name 4 key words

Answer 16

reward
informed consent
anonymity
approval of ethics committee

Question 17

How should be the reward for your participant?

Answer 17

Should be not expressive nor inappropriate

Question 18

Informed consent

Answer 18

may be left out if no harm to participants is possible (e.g. survey)

Question 19

Anonymity

Answer 19

data collection does not require anonymity, but anonymity should be ensured after data collection is completed

Question 20

Approval of ethics committee

Answer 20

needed for any research

Question 21

Define deception

Answer 21

Deception is giving false information about research or part of it to participants

Question 22

Name 4 conditions for the use of deception

Answer 22

only used as a last resort

there is sufficient evidence that the results from this research will be useful

great effort to predict possible vulnerabilities (Schwachstellen) of participants has been shown

debriefing (Nachbesprechung)

Question 23

basic research

Answer 23

is about conforming or disconfirming a certain theory
acquire general information about a phenomena
little regard to real-world examples

Question 24

applied research

Answer 24

generate information that can be directly applied to real-life problems

Question 25

Define a Theory

Answer 25

Theory: “a plausible or scientifically acceptable, well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world; an organized system of accepted knowledge that applies in a variety of circumstances to explain a specific set of phenomena and predict the characteristics of as yet unobserved phenomena.”

Question 26

How should a good hypothesis look like?

Name 6 characteristics

Answer 26

1. connected with prior research, plausible with respect to what we already know
2. testable, variables should be observable and measurable, focused on real situations and events
3. falsifiable/tentative and risky, there must be a chance that the theory is wrong
4. positive, should prove that something exist, not that something does not exist.
5. parsimonious, not to complex, as simple as possible, but not simpler.
6. general, explanations of broad explanatory power

Question 27

During which stages of your experiment is confidentiality required?

Answer 27

While anonymity is only required at the end of your research, confidentiality is required during all stages