T3 Political Flashcards
1
Q
Republican Political Dominance
A
Between 1868 and 1932, Grover Cleveland and Woodrow Wilson were the only two Democrats to
interrupt the long chain of Republican presidents that stretched from Ulysses Grant to Herbert Hoover.
2
Q
New Ideology: Populism
A
- Populism was a new political movement that appealed to ordinary people who felt that their concerns were being disregarded by established elite groups.
- Populism would be a rural and regional movement.
- William Jennings Bryan was the leader of The Populist Party or The People’s Party (later it would become part of the Democratic Party) running who would run as a candidate for president in the
presidential elections 1896, 1900, and 1908. - William Jennings Bryan and The Populist or The People’s Party, whose supporters were called
Populists, advocated for those who felt ignored by the traditional ruling elite and both the
Republican and Democratic party. - The People’s Party and Populism as a movement would centre around the campaign for free silver,
as well as progressive taxation, public ownership of railways, and the direct election of US
senators.
3
Q
The Geography & Chronology of Populism
A
- In the 1890s a new political party, the Populists, developed in the Southern and Western parts of
the USA. Reasons for the emergence of the Populists. - There were many who did not benefit from the economic growth of the USA. In 1893, there was
a depression that bankrupted many businesses. - Most farmers felt that they were not benefiting from American prosperity.
- A Populist movement emerged which consisted of farmers, working people and supporters of
silver. - This new party was opposed to ‘big business’, especially in north-west America, which was getting
an increasingly bad press. - Populism would last into the early 1900s, but would be eventually replaced by Progessivism.
4
Q
The Demand for Silver Currency (Bimetallists)
A
- Traditionally, the USA followed the Gold Standard. The coinage was minted from gold and paper
currency had to be convertible into gold. - However, bimetallists felt silver should be used in the production of coinage as well as gold.
- World production of gold had decreased between 1865 and 1890 whereas there had been a rapid
growth in the production of silver in the USA after its discovery in Nevada and other Rocky
Mountain states, from just over $150,000 dollars in 1860 to $57 million 30 years later. - Pressure from the silver industry led to the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 which meant that
the government would buy 4,500,000 ounces of silver each month at market price and use it in
the production of coinage. - To the conservatives this reform was abhorrent. It threatened to undermine the economy, isolate
the USA from Europe and increase government interference in business. - Therefore, in 1896, President Grover Cleveland removed this measure, believing that the
confidence of the business community had been lost because of the use of silver in the coinage. - This angered the supporters of silver who were based mainly in the western areas of the USA.
5
Q
Agricultural Discontent (1890s)
A
- There was much discontent among farmers. This was partly because of falling prices, especially in
wheat and cotton. - In 1860, wheat was sold at $1.60 a bushel and had fallen to 60 cents by 1890.
- In the same period, cotton fell from 30 cents a bushel to 6 cents.
- High tariffs on foreign goods meant that foreigners would not buy US agricultural products and
the USA faced increasing competition for European markets from Australia, Russia and Canada. - To make matters worse, harvests deteriorated from the later 1880s due to poor weather
conditions.
6
Q
Formation of the ‘Populist Party’ or ‘People’s Party’ (1892)
A
- In July 1892, the Populist Party was formed at a convention in Omaha from an alliance of silver
and farming interests to fight against the traditional Democrat and Republican candidates. - This was very much a ‘people’s party’ and they chose James B. Weaver to stand for president in
that year. - Although they did not do very well compared to the two main parties, Weaver did poll one million
votes.
7
Q
The Populists Aims
A
- The Party fought the 1892 presidential election with the following programme:
(1) The regulation of railways, particularly the freight prices that many felt were artificially high.
(2) Far more government regulation of farm prices.
(3) A graduated income tax that would take away dependence on tariffs as the main source of
government income. This would ensure that the rich were taxed more heavily and encourage
more exports, especially for farmers.
(4) The direct election of senators to ensure that all citizens would be able to choose two senators
from each state who went to Congress and directly represented their interests.
(5) A maximum eight-hour working day.
(6) To alter the basis of the currency, which was traditionally based on gold.
8
Q
The 1896 Election
A
- The Populist Party had sufficient support to have a decisive voice in the nomination of the
Democrat candidate to fight the presidential election campaign of 1896. - They chose William Jennings Bryan who was a supporter of silver coinage and farming interests
and wanted to improve conditions for the urban working class. - The 1896 election was the first where modern campaigning methods and financing were
employed, including dirty tricks. - For example, a wealthy businessman, Mark Hanna, spent $3 million supporting the Republican
candidate, William McKinley, using some of it to smear the reputation of Bryan. - McKinley was the popular Governor of Ohio who won much support, especially from the working
classes, because he supported a strong tariff to protect American industry. - Hanna sent 1,500 speakers into electoral areas where voters seemed undecided which candidate
to vote for and paid for millions of pieces of campaign literature. - Most of the national newspapers, including the influential New York Times, supported McKinley.
- Bryan was unable to call upon such financial support and used more traditional methods of
campaigning. - He travelled over 28,000 km and gave 600 campaign speeches. McKinley won 7,036,000 of the
popular vote to Bryan’s 6,468,000, and 273 of the electoral college votes to the 176 of his rival. - McKinley’s victory was not due simply to the backing of Hanna.
- Bryan was unable to win a single state in the populous North-east where workers feared the free
silver idea as much as their bosses. The economy of 1896 was also on the upswing. - Had the election occurred during the economic depression of 1893, the results may have differed.
9
Q
How important was Populism?
A
- Since the 1890s historians have vigorously debated the nature of Populism.
- Some historians see a close link between the Populists of the 1890s and the Progressives of 1900
12 but, for the most part, the link was reactionary. - ‘Progressives’ feared popular democracy as represented by Populism and most of the leading
Progressives such as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson strongly opposed it. - Some historians see the Populists as forward-looking liberal reformers and others view them as
reactionaries trying to recapture an idyllic and utopian past based on farming. - The ‘Populist Party’ or the ‘People’s Party’ never recovered from the events of 1896.
- By 1900, membership had fallen and Populist activists had either retired from politics or joined
one of the major parties.
10
Q
Populism importance in the politics of the USA
A
- The Progressives adopted many of the aims of the Populist Party.
- The Party also had electoral successes.
- Besides electing eleven governors and numerous other state and local officials, approximately 45
members of the Party served in the US Congress between 1891 and 1902.
11
Q
The Presidency of William McKinley (1897 - 1901)
A
- At McKinley’s inauguration in 1897, Republican conservatism was riding high.
- The Republicans held both the presidency and congress with large majorities both in the House
of Representative and in the Senate. - For the first time ever, they had won the presidency without needing the black vote in the South.
- The Democrats were still weakened by internal divisions, though Populism was now a weakening
force. The American economy was entering a period of exceptional growth. - McKinley filled his administration with wealthy men and followed business friendly policies, doing
nothing to prevent the consolidation of businesses into ever larger corporations.
12
Q
McKinley & The Gold Standard
A
- McKinley pleased his wealthy conservative backers by maintaining the protective tariff.
- The Dingley Tariff Act of 1897 pushed tariff rates to even higher levels.
- Like Grover Cleveland, McKinley was a strong believer in the gold standard.
- Keeping the Gold Standard was strengthened by the Alaska-Yukon Gold Rush of 1897- 1899, which
increased the amount of gold in circulation. - In 1900 McKinley introduced the Currency Act, which committed the United States to maintaining
the Gold Standard. - The potential problems caused by these policies were lessened by the general prosperity of the
time, including rising farm prices.
13
Q
McKinley’s choice of vice-president Theodore Roosevelt
A
- McKinley’s political position was strengthened by the 1898 Spanish-American War.
- McKinley himself was not particularly keen on an imperial and expansionist foreign policy, but a
lot of Republicans were. - McKinley was happy to bask in the glow of the army and naval successes in Cuba and the Pacific.
- For his re-election campaign in 1900 he adopted a hero of the war, Theodore Roosevelt, as his
vice-president. - McKinley and Roosevelt were not a harmonious team. There were significant differences between
them in age, personality, and political beliefs. - But McKinley and Roosevelt were a strong electoral team, and they cruised to a comfortable
victory over Williams Jennings Bryan.
14
Q
McKinley’s Assassination (September 1901)
A
- William McKinley seemed destined for a smooth and successful second term as president, but
within six months he was dead. - In September 1901 he arrived in Buffalo, in upstate New York, to attend the Pan-American
Exposition, a celebration of American prosperity and industrial might. - Visiting the Temple of Music on 6th September 1901, McKinley was shot in the stomach by a young
anarchist of Polish-German descent, Leon Czolgosz. - The president’s life was not thought to be in danger and the public were told he was recovering
well, but complications set in from the bullet lodged in his body. - He died on 14th September 1901, eight days after the shooting.
- Theodore Roosevelt became the youngest-ever president, at the age of 42.
15
Q
New Ideology: Progressivism
A
- Progressivism would have a more lasting impact on US politics from 1900 onwards and would be
embraced by both the Republican and Democratic Party. - Presidents Teddy Roosevelt, Taft and Wilson would all become known as ‘Progressive Presidents’.
- Progressivism would influence not only politics, but also society, culture and moral values.
- It was put forward from both sides of the political divide. Progressivism was an angry and idealistic
reaction against what was seen as the evils of political corruption, monopoly capitalism,
personified by the Robber Barons, and instead demand the regulation of businesses, the breaking
up of cartels and trusts, workers rights, women’s rights including the right to vote, higher public
morality including the demand for prohibition and protection of the environment against
pollution and land grabbing.
16
Q
The meaning of Progressivism
A
- Progressivism was a loose grouping of many individuals and organisations, with no easily
identifiable leaders and no clear set of aims. - It was not confined to one of the main parties as, at presidential level, Theodore Roosevelt and
Taft, who were both Republican, and Wilson, a Democrat, were seen as Progressives. - One of the first historians of Progressivism, De Witt, whose book Reflections on Progressivism was
published in 1913, thought that the Progressive Movement was concerned with the regulation of
big business, political reform and social reform. - More recently, Chambers defined Progressivism as interventionism – the belief that direct
intervention at state and federal level could bring about improvements to society. - Over time the movement developed in different ways – from political reform and the regulation
of working hours through to votes for women and major constitutional changes. - The Progressives were responsible for a number of significant achievements including
amendments to the Constitution, radical reforms and changes to the role of the federal
government which would have far-reaching implications for the twentieth century.
17
Q
Progressivism Causes - Economic problems
A
- A recession struck in 1893, leading to high unemployment in industrial cities, which remained at
twelve per cent for the rest of the 1890s. - Businesses cut wages to sustain profits, which led to a fall in living standards.
- Many banks collapsed during the recession, which meant many people lost their savings.
- Agriculture continued to decline due to falling prices.
- The small farmers of the North-east could not compete with the large-scale farming of the West.
18
Q
Progressivism Causes - Social problems
A
- Many Americans lived in desperate poverty.
- Living conditions were terrible in many cities where there was overcrowding and totally
inadequate sewage disposal and a lack of clean water. - Working conditions were also often very poor with no restriction on working hours, with a six
day, 72-hour working week commonplace. - There was no welfare system in the USA – no unemployment or sick pay or compensation for
accidents.
19
Q
Progressivism Causes - The need for political reform
A
- There was growing dissatisfaction with the two main political parties.
- The Democrats, strong in the South, were deeply conservative.
- The Republicans, who dominated Congress, seemed to have become the party of big business and
banks. - Progressives were opposed to corrupt party machines and big business domination of the political
process.
20
Q
Progressivism Causes - The need to regulate big business
A
- In the late nineteenth century large businesses, in particular trusts, became so powerful that they
threatened to establish monopolies in particular industries, which meant they could fix prices
without fear of competition. - There was increasing hostility towards individuals such as Rockefeller, Morgan and Carnegie who
seemed to put their own profits before the interests of the masses. - There was a growing demand for government regulation to control big business, especially trusts,
although Progressives could not agree on how they should be brought under control.
21
Q
Progressivism Causes - The influence of the media (Muckrakers)
A
- In the early twentieth century, there was a huge increase in newspaper and magazine circulation.
- By 1904, McClure’s magazine was selling 750,000 copies and eight years later Collier’s magazine
had reached 1 million sales per edition. - The press was to play a major role in exposing the evils in American society, beginning in 1902
with McClure’s magazine which exposed political and business corruption in most of America’s cities. - Other writers and journalists such as Ida Tarbell, Lincoln Steffens and Upton Sinclair wrote a whole
series of what became known as ‘muckraking articles’, which greatly influenced public opinion
and accelerated reform.
22
Q
Progressivism Causes - The Fear of Revolution
A
- Some Americans were concerned about the growth of socialism and radicalism and felt that
unless there was reform there could well be revolution. - Labor unions grew in strength with more and more workers supporting more militant actions such
as strikes which often turned violent, such as the 1892 steelworkers strike in Pittsburgh. - Many of those who feared revolution were from the middle class.
- Indeed, Progressivism is often seen as a middle-class movement.
- Most Progressive leaders were middle-class professionals such as lawyers and doctors who were
desperate to bring about reform to create a more efficient and stable society.
23
Q
Theodore Roosevelt (1901 - 1909)
A
- Theodore Roosevelt became president in 1901 after the assassination of the Republican President
William McKinley. - Some historians see him as a reactionary who supported reforms in order to prevent revolution.
- Others believe that he gave much publicity and impetus to the Progressive Movement.
- He felt that the federal government had a role in the economy and should intervene where and
when necessary. - He was criticised by liberals for being too cautious and by many in his party for being too radical.
24
Q
The Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890)
A
- Any trust that restricted trade between states or between foreign nations was declared illegal.
- However, the Act’s terms were vague and very early on it was weakened by a Supreme Court
ruling of 1895, United States v. E. C. Knight. - The Supreme Court held that the American Sugar Refining Company had not broken the law by
taking over a number of competitors.
25
Anti-Trust Measures
* Roosevelt wasted little time in introducing significant reforms.
* In his first State of the Union Address to Congress in December 1901, he made it clear that he was
going to take on big business.
* Roosevelt was determined to make the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 more effective.
* As early as 1902, Roosevelt instructed his attorney-general, Philander C. Knox, to start
proceedings against the Northern Securities Company, a vast holding company which controlled
several railroads in the north-east of the USA.
* This involved taking on powerful businessmen such as Rockefeller and J. P. Morgan, who appeared
to be using the company’s monopoly to create excess profits.
* After a long battle, the Supreme Court decided in 1904 that the Company was illegal and it was
dissolved.
* This encouraged Roosevelt to embark on 44 anti-trust prosecutions, among them American
Tobacco and Standard Oil.
* The 1903 Department of Commerce and Labor Act created a new Department of Commerce with
a Cabinet secretary.
* It was given the power to collect data from any business that dealt in interstate commerce which
would be vital in identifying the need to regulate business if it showed monopoly or price fixing.
* Roosevelt played a very important role in getting this legislation passed by Congress, encouraging
the public to put pressure on their Senators and Congressmen to get the Bill passed.
* The 1906 Hepburn Act gave a federal government commission the power to inspect books of
railroad companies and to lay down the maximum rates they could charge.
26
Labour relations
* Roosevelt was prepared to intervene in industrial disputes such as the anthracite coal strike of
1902.
* Employers had locked out miners who went on strike for better wages and an eight-hour day.
* Roosevelt summoned both sides to Washington and told the employers that unless they agreed
to arbitration he would send troops in to work the mines.
* The employers settled, raising wages and offering a nine-hour day.
* Previous presidents had always taken the side of the employers.
* Roosevelt had been seen to expand the role of government to obtain justice and fair play – one
of the key elements of Progressivism.
* While this action made Roosevelt very popular with the working classes, the employers had not
conceded very much and simply raised prices to cover the pay rise.
27
Conservation
* Roosevelt was also far ahead of his time on conservation issues.
* He was possibly the first president to realise that natural resources were not infinite.
* He ordered 150 million acres of forest to be placed on federal reserves and strictly enforced laws
concerning grazing, mining and lumbering.
* In 1908, Roosevelt organised the National Conservation Conference which led to many states
creating commissions to look after the environment.
* By supporting conservation, he seemed to be supporting the ‘people’ against mining, timber and
oil ‘interests’.
* Roosevelt also extended the role of the federal government in food consumption.
* An Act of 1906 led to a federal programme of meat inspection.
* In the same year he introduced the Pure Food and Drug Act which started the process of ending
food adulteration.
28
Roosevelt’s achievement
* In the last few years of his second administration (1906 – 1908), Roosevelt continued to take
action against big business and also continued to support conservation measures.
* Some 120 million acres were taken into the public domain between 1905 and 1909.
* In his final State of the Union message in 1908, he laid down an agenda that his Democrat
successors should put into practice.
* He seemed to show a genuine concern for the underdog, and he placed on the nation’s agenda
many of the issues that were of greatest concern to the Progressives and kept them there.
* Moreover, he brought the presidential office of the USA firmly into the arena of economic and
social reform.
* However, Roosevelt was unable to persuade Congress to pass more in the way of Progressive
reform.
* He was not helped by the fact that there was a growing divide in the Republican Party between
conservatives and Progressives.
* Roosevelt was very popular in 1908 and, had he been prepared to stand again, he would almost
certainly have won.
* He respected the two-term tradition established by George Washington and refused to run for a
third term as president. His successor was William Taft.
* Taft fought the presidential election campaign against the Democrat, William Bryan.
* Taft polled 321 of the electoral votes and 7,678,90 of the popular vote to the 162 and 6,409,104
of his opponent.
29
Taft’s achievements
* On the one hand Taft did continue Roosevelt’s ant-trust policies.
* His administration initiated 80 anti-trust suits under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, twice as many
as Roosevelt, and introduced an eight-hour day for government employees as well as mine safety
legislation.
* He also gave power to the Interstate Commission to set railroad rates, introduced a federal
income tax and corporation tax, both of which later had significance in covering increased
government spending.
* He also brought in the direct election of senators by the people rather than being appointed by
state legislatures.
* However, as a lawyer, he was concerned with what he saw as Roosevelt’s overuse of presidential
authority.
* He respected the rights of Congress to oppose his ideas and was determined to act within the
limits of the Constitution.
* He also lacked the political skills of his predecessor and failed to handle the Progressive
conservative divisions among Republicans.
* He earned the opposition of many Progressives by sacking Gifford Pinchot, the great
conservationist who had originally been appointed by Roosevelt.
* Taft seemed to increasingly align himself with the conservative wing of the Republican Party
particularly over the issue of tariff reform.
* In 1909, Taft’s convention of a special session of Congress to debate tariff reform legislation
spurred the Republican protectionist majority to action and led to the passage of the Payne
Aldrich Act, which did little to lower tariffs.
* Though more progressive Republicans (such as Roosevelt) expected Taft to veto the bill, he signed
it into law and publicly defended it.
30
Opposition from Roosevelt
* Concerns about Taft’s reluctance to carry out further reform were communicated to Roosevelt in
1910 while he was taking part in a safari in Africa.
* Roosevelt returned to America to act as an opponent to Taft.
* He made an important speech at Osawatomie in which he attacked the trusts, urged the need for
social reform and supported even greater federal power, launching his policy of New Nationalism.
* In 1911, he determined to run against Taft for the presidential election nomination, but Taft
controlled the Party machine and was able to dominate the convention.
* Roosevelt now claimed that the Republican Party no longer represented the wishes of the people
and in 1912 left to form a new party, which was called The Progressive Party and nicknamed The
‘bull Moose’ Party to fight the 1912 presidential election.
* This new party split and weakened the Republicans and contributed greatly to their defeat in the
1912 presidential election.
