Systemic Conditions Flashcards
Abusive Head Trauma. What is it?
<ul> <li>Head injury inflicted by shaking </li> <li>Children under 1 year of age at risk because their neck muscles cannot stabilize head </li> <li>Associated with subdural hemorrhage, occult evidence of blunt trauma </li> <li>Principal ophthalmic manifestation: retinal hemorrhages, which result from... </li> <li>Shearing at interface of retina and vitreous </li> </ul>
Abusive Head Trauma. How does it appear?
<ul> <li>One or more <a>surface retinal hemorrhages</a>, looking like red blisters </li> <li>Usually present in both eyes </li> <li>Deeper retinal hemorrhages and retinal splitting may occur in severe cases </li> </ul>
Abusive Head Trauma. What else looks like it?
<ul> <li>Blood dyscrasias, especially <a>thrombocytopenia</a>, but can be diagnosed with blood count</li> <li>Severe blow to eyes, but should see <a>subconjunctival hemorrhage</a> and <a>hyphema</a> </li> <li>Birth trauma, but hemorrhages disappear spontaneously within 1 month of age </li> <li>Resuscitative chest compression (sudden rise in intrathoracic pressure), but hemorrhages few and mild </li> </ul>
Abusive Head Trauma. How do you manage it?
<ul> <li>Consult ophthalmologist if you suspect abusive head trauma, especially by shaking </li> </ul>
Abusive Head Trauma. What will happen?
<ul> <li>Hemorrhages resolve within 4-6 weeks </li> <li>Visual recovery good unless retina has split </li> <li>Neurologic outcome depends on severity of brain injury </li> </ul>
Bacterial Endocarditis. What is it?
<ul> <li>Bacterial infection of heart valve </li> <li>Systemic manifestations: fever, fatigue, positive blood cultures for bacteria</li> <li>Ophthalmic manifestations: retinal hemorrhages, cotton wool spots, Roth spots, retinal infarcts </li> </ul>
Bacterial Endocarditis. How does it appear?
<ul> <li>No visual symptoms unless retinal occlusions are large or close to fovea </li><li><a>Flame-shaped retinal hemorrhages</a>, <a>cotton wool spots</a>, and <a>Roth spots</a>—white-centered flame hemorrhages that are combinations of hemorrhages and cotton wool spots </li> <li>Areas of gray turbidity indicating <a>retinal infarction</a></li> <li><a>Fluffy white balls</a> indicating retinal infection that has originated in retina and spread into vitreous; this manifestation is rare </li> </ul>
Bacterial Endocarditis. What else looks like it?
<ul> <li>Systemic hypertension </li> <li>HIV/AIDS </li> <li>Connective tissue diseases </li> <li>Systemic infection </li> <li>Blood dyscrasia </li> <li>Behçet disease </li> <li>Hypercoagulable states </li> </ul>
Bacterial Endocarditis. How do you manage it?
<ul> <li>If considering diagnosis of bacterial endocarditis, refer to ophthalmologist for detection of occlusive retinopathy, although may have causes other than endocarditis </li> </ul>
Bacterial Endocarditis. What will happen?
<ul> <li>Retinal abnormalities disappear if endocarditis effectively treated </li> <li>Vision impaired only if large retinal areas infarcted or infected</li> </ul>
Behçet Disease. What is it?
<ul> <li>Autoimmune disorder causing vasculitis principally in eyes, mucous membranes, skin, but also in many other organs</li> <li>Diagnosed most commonly in Middle East and Asia around old Silk Road trading route</li> <li>Main systemic manifestations: recurrent painful mouth and genital ulcers, arthritis, meningoencephalitis</li> <li>Main ophthalmic manifestations: anterior uveitis often with hypopyon, retinal vasculitis, vitreous cells, optic neuropathy, papilledema from dural venous sinus thrombosis </li> </ul>
Behçet Disease. How does it appear?
<ul> <li>Vision loss, photophobia, floaters</li> <li><a>Ciliary flush</a>, hazy cornea, <a>hypopyon</a></li> <li>Vitreous cells</li> <li><a>White cuffing </a>around retinal vessels </li> <li><a>Afferent pupil defect</a></li> <li><a>Papilledema</a> (from dural venous sinus thrombosis)</li> <li>Altered mental status, focal neurologic findings</li></ul>
Behçet Disease. What else looks like it?
<ul> <li><a>Anterior uveitis</a> associated with other systemic diseases</li> <li><a>Retinal vasculitis</a> associated with connective tissue diseases</li> <li><a>Sarcoidosis</a></li> <li>Other vasculitides, infections, cancer</li> </ul>
Behçet Disease. How do you manage it?
<ul> <li>Refer urgently to ophthalmologist any patient with diagnosis of Behçet disease who has newly blurred vision </li> <li>Refer non-urgently any patient without visual symptoms in whom Behçet disease is suspected in order to help confirm diagnosis and detect manifestations of mild ophthalmic involvement</li> </ul>
Behçet Disease. What will happen?
<ul> <li>Diagnosis depends on combination of characteristic clinical features, exclusion of other diseases, and pathergy test, but...</li> <li>Diagnosis always remains presumptive as clinical features, laboratory tests, pathology not specific</li> <li>Treatment involves immune suppressants, including corticosteroids, cyclosporine, mycophenolate, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, tumor necrosis factor inhibitors</li> <li>Outcomes depend on severity of manifestations and promptness of diagnosis</li> </ul>
Candidiasis. What is it?
<ul> <li>Systemic infection with Candida fungal organisms </li> <li>Settings are sepsis, chronic parenteral hyperalimentation, hemodialysis, major surgery, burns </li> <li>Retinal infection rare but vision-threatening </li> </ul>
Candidiasis. How does it appear?
<ul> <li>Patient may report impaired vision if able to communicate </li> <li>Ophthalmoscopy discloses <a>yellow-white mass</a> based in retina but spreading into vitreous cavity </li> <li>Looks like "headlight in fog"</li> </ul>
Candidiasis. What else looks like it?
<ul><li>Vitreous hemorrhage</li> <li>Posterior uveitis </li> <li>Proliferative diabetic retinopathy</li> <li> Bacterial retinitis or endophthalmitis </li><li>Other fungal retinitis </li> <li>Ocular trauma </li> </ul>
Candidiasis. How do you manage it?
<ul><li>Consult ophthalmologist to rule out intraocular spread, especially if patient reports vision impairment or cannot communicate</li> </ul>
Candidiasis. What will happen?
<ul><li>In patients with candida organisms recovered from blood cultures or urine, but no evidence of systemic infection, ophthalmologic examination rarely discloses intraocular infection </li> <li>If ophthalmoscopy discloses findings suggestive of intraocular candida infection, vitreous will be aspirated for smear and culture </li> <li>Intravitreal injection of anti-fungal agent often performed </li> <li>Vitrectomy may also be necessary to preserve vision </li> <li>Visual salvage depends on extent of infection at discovery </li> </ul>
Congenital Rubella Syndrome. What is it?
<ul> <li>Infection of fetus exposed to maternal rubella during first trimester of pregnancy </li> <li>Retinopathy, microphthalmia (small eye), cataract, glaucoma, corneal opacification, or uveitis, present in over 70% of cases</li> </ul>
Congenital Rubella Syndrome. How does it appear?
<ul> <li>Fine speckling of retina<strong> </strong>called "salt-and-pepper retinopathy" that does not impair vision</li> <li>Microphthalmia, cataract, glaucoma, corneal scar, and uveitis often impair vision</li> </ul>
Congenital Rubella Syndrome. What else looks like it?
<ul> <li>Congenital syphilis </li> <li>Genetic disorders </li> <li><a>Deferoxamine toxicity</a></li> <li><a>Chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine toxicity</a></li> <li>Thioridazine toxicity</li></ul>
Congenital Rubella Syndrome. How do you manage it?
<ul> <li>Refer baby with microphthalmia, cataract, glaucoma, corneal scar, uveitis, or retinopathy to ophthalmologist urgently </li> </ul>
Congenital Rubella Syndrome. What will happen?
<ul> <li>Cataract, glaucoma, corneal scar, uveitis may require treatment to preserve or restore vision</li> <li>Retinopathy rarely requires treatment and typically remains stationary </li> </ul>
Cytomegalovirus Infection. What is it?
<ul> <li>Systemic infection with cytomegalovirus</li> <li>May cause necrotizing retinitis as virus invades vascular endothelium</li> <li>At risk are immune-compromised patients and infants of HIV/AIDS-infected mothers </li> <li>Systemic and intravitreal antiviral treatment effective if given early</li> </ul>
Cytomegalovirus Infection. How does it appear?
<ul> <li>One or more <a>cotton wool spots</a> earliest sign </li> <li>As disease advances, cotton wool spots joined by retinal <a>infiltrates</a>, <a>hemorrhages</a></li> <li>May start in retinal periphery and spread posteriorly </li> <li>Infection can <a>destroy retina</a> within days to weeks </li> </ul>
Cytomegalovirus Infection. What else looks like it?
<ul> <li>Herpes simplex and herpes zoster retinitis</li> <li><a>Toxoplasma retinitis</a></li> <li><a>Candida retinitis</a></li> <li><a>Systemic hypertension</a></li> <li><a>Diabetes</a></li> <li><a>Connective tissue diseases</a></li> <li><a>Blood dyscrasias</a></li> </ul>
Cytomegalovirus Infection. How do you manage it?
<ul> <li>Refer immune-compromised patients with visual symptoms, low CD4, high CMV viral loads, or cotton wool spots promptly to ophthalmologist</li> <li>Refer babies whose mothers have HIV/AIDS to ophthalmologist </li> </ul>
Cytomegalovirus Infection. What will happen?
<ul> <li>Immune reconstitution with highly active anti-retroviral therapy will be aimed at keeping CD4 count above 100/mm3</li> <li>Direct treatment options include ganciclovir, valganciclovir, foscarnet, cidofovir, and fomivirsen given systemically or intravitreally </li> <li>If started early enough, these treatments arrest infection and preserve vision </li> </ul>
Diabetes Mellitus. What is it?
<ul> <li>Systemic disorder marked by elevated blood sugar</li> <li>Type 1 (onset in youth) autoimmune insulin deficiency</li> <li>Type 2 (onset in adulthood) insulin resistance</li> <li>Major cause of visual impairment, because...</li> <li>Retinal blood vessels leak to cause macular edema, and...</li> <li>Retinal blood vessels occlude to cause retinal ischemia, neovascular and fibrovascular proliferation, vitreous hemorrhage, retinal detachment</li><li>Vision-reducing diabetic macular edema present in 10% within 15 years of diagnosis</li> <li>Nonproliferative retinopathy present in 25% within 15 years of diagnosis</li></ul>
Diabetes Mellitus. How does it appear?
<ul> <li>Microaneurysms, dot-blot hemorrhages, hard exudates in earliest stage (<a>"non-proliferative" or "background" retinopathy</a>), reflecting leakage from incompetent pre-capillary arterioles </li> <li>New retinal blood vessels in more advanced stage ("<a>neovascular proliferative retinopathy</a>"), reflecting chronic retinal ischemia</li> <li>Pre-retinal fibrovascular stalk in most advanced stage ("<a>fibrovascular proliferative retinopathy</a>"), reflecting severe retinal ischemia</li> </ul>
Diabetes Mellitus. What else looks like it?
<ul><li><a>Other yellow-white things in retina</a></li> <li><a>Hemorrhages</a> of systemic hypertension, blood dyscrasias, radiation, connective tissue disorders, conditions that cause microvascular incompetence</li><li>Microaneurysms unique to diabetes mellitus, but difficult to see without special instruments</li> <li>Neovascularization distinguished from normal vascularization by their weblike density</li> <li>Fibrovascular proliferation after eye trauma, retinal detachment </li> </ul>
Diabetes Mellitus. How do you manage it?
<ul><li>Refer patient with new visual loss with urgency depending on acuteness of visual symptoms</li> <li>Refer patients without visual symptoms to ophthalmologist non-urgently at time of diagnosis</li> </ul>
Diabetes Mellitus. What will happen?
<ul> <li>Critical preventive measures: tight control of blood sugar, blood pressure, lipids</li> <li>Grid laser photocoagulation treats macular edema</li><li>Intravitreal injection of corticosteroids or anti-vascular endothelial growth factors (anti-VEGF) treats neovascular retinopathy </li> <li><a>Pan-retinal photocoagulation</a> also treats neovascular retinopathy, often causing impressive regression of new vessels</li> <li>Vitrectomy treats advanced fibrovascular proliferative retinopathy</li> <li>Masked trials found that these treatments stabilize and sometimes reverse vision loss if applied early</li></ul>
Giant Cell Arteritis. What is it?
<ul> <li>Autoimmune inflammation of medium-sized arteries, especially branches of external carotid artery</li> <li> Affects those aged 60 years and older </li> <li> May be severe form of polymyalgia rheumatica </li> <li>Causes headache, joint and muscle aches, scalp tenderness, jaw claudication, fatigue, appetite loss</li><li>Elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein </li> <li> Chief concern is arteritic ischemic optic neuropathy causing irreversible blinding infarction of optic disc in one or both eyes </li> </ul>
Giant Cell Arteritis. How does it appear?
<ul><li>Sudden painless loss of vision in one eye</li> <li>Similar process may affect other eye within hours to days </li><li>Visual loss often profound </li> <li><a>Afferent pupil defect</a>, and... </li> <li><a>Swollen optic disc</a> in affected eye(s) in 95% of cases </li> <li>In at least 80% of cases, patient reports one or more systemic features present for weeks to months </li> </ul>
Giant Cell Arteritis. What else looks like it?
<ul> <li><a>Non-arteritic ischemic optic neuropathy</a>, but visual loss usually less severe, and patients lack systemic symptoms of giant cell arteritis</li> <li><a>Optic neuritis</a>, but usually in younger individuals</li> <li><a>Papilledema</a>, but usually present in both eyes and vision less affected</li></ul>
Giant Cell Arteritis. How do you manage it?
<ul> <li>Refer emergently to ophthalmologist any elderly patient with sudden visual loss, even if there are no systemic features of giant cell arteritis</li> <li>Refer elderly patients for temporal artery biopsy if they have new head or neck manifestations that suggest giant cell arteritis and sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein are elevated </li> </ul>
Giant Cell Arteritis. What will happen?
<ul><li>Patients with clinical evidence of optic disc infarction and clinical or serologic evidence to suggest giant cell arteritis will be treated immediately with intensive intravenous corticosteroid therapy</li><li> Intensive corticosteroid treatment may prevent further visual loss</li><li>Patients who have normal vision but systemic symptoms of polymyalgia rheumatic or giant cell arteritis will undergo testing of sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein, which will be elevated in at least 80% of cases with giant cell arteritis </li> <li>To sustain diagnosis of giant cell arteritis, temporal artery biopsy must show <a>thickening</a> of media and endothelium, often with <a>fragmentation</a> of internal elastic lamina and sometimes with granulomas filled with <a>Langerhans giant cells</a> (granulomatous inflammation) </li><li>Properly performed and interpreted, temporal artery biopsy of one side has sensitivity of at least 93% and specificity of nearly 100% for giant cell arteritis</li><li>If biopsy of one temporal artery is negative, biospy of other temporal artery is indicated in cases of high clinical suspicion</li><li>Biopsy of second temporal artery increases sensitivity by about 3%</li><li>Negative biopsy excludes diagnosis of giant cell arteritis, and... </li><li>Positive biopsy mandates continuous corticosteroid treatment for at least 1 year after diagnosis</li> </ul>
Graves Disease. What is it?
<ul> <li>Autoimmune process that targets thyroid gland, orbital tissues</li> <li>Systemic manifestations include hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism</li> <li>Serum markers include elevated thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulin</li> <li>Disease divided into active phase (inflammation) and inactive phase (scarring) </li> <li>Ophthalmic manifestations: lid retraction, lid lag, proptosis, conjunctival inflammation, tearing, ocular misalignment, optic neuropathy</li> </ul>
Graves Disease. How does it appear?
<ul><li>Discomfort around eyes rather than pain </li> <li>Symptoms appear gradually and depend on which signs are present</li> <li>Lid retraction: lower border of upper lid does not reach top of cornea, so that some sclera shows</li> <li>Lig lag: upper lids do not keep pace with eyes on downward gaze, so that sclera shows until upper lids catch up</li> <li>Proptosis (exophthalmos): forward displacement of eye because of retrobulbar soft tissue swelling </li> <li>Conjunctival inflammation: diffuse congestion with dilated blood vessels and conjunctival swelling</li> <li>Tearing: because conjunctiva inflamed</li> <li>Ocular misalignment: extraocular muscles become inflamed and stiff, preventing full eye movement </li> <li>Optic neuropathy: extraocular muscles enlarge enough to compress optic nerve in posterior orbit</li> <li><a>Swollen extraocular muscles</a> apparent on orbital CT or MRI</li></ul>
Graves Disease. What else looks like it?
<ul> <li><a>Orbital cellulitis</a>, but usually faster onset, unilateral, and no lid retraction</li> <li><a>Idiopathic orbital inflammation</a>, but usually more pain, more unilateral, and no lid retraction or lag</li> <li><a>Orbital tumor</a>, but usually unilateral, and no lid retraction or lag</li> <li><a>Carotid-cavernous arteriovenous fistula</a>, but superior ophthalmic vein dilated on imaging</li><li><a>Conjunctivitis</a> causes no proptosis, lid lag, or lid retraction</li><li><a>Contact dermatitis</a> affects only lids and surrounding facial skin</li><li><a>Stye</a> causes focal swelling and tenderness mainly affecting one lid</li><li><a>Dacryocystitis</a> causes focal swelling and tenderness of nasal portion of lower lid, where lacrimal sac lies</li><li> <a>Anterior uveitis</a> causes photophobia</li><li><a>Scleritis</a> usually causes focal conjunctival redness and more periocular pain </li></ul>
Graves Disease. How do you manage it?
<ul> <li>Refer non-urgently to ophthalmologist </li> <li>Refer more urgently if patient expresses marked pain or vision loss</li> </ul>
Graves Disease. What will happen?
<ul> <li>Regulation of thyroid function does not alter course of ophthalmic findings</li> <li>Head-of-bed elevation, topical decongestants treat mild conjunctival inflammation </li> <li>Short-term corticosteroids treat marked ocular discomfort, conjunctival inflammation, ocular misalignment </li> <li>Lubricants and moisture chambers treat severe proptosis with corneal exposure </li> <li>Orbital wall surgical decompression treats corneal exposure, optic neuropathy</li> <li>Spectacle prisms and extraocular muscle surgery treat ocular misalignment once disease enters inactive phase</li> <li>Lid-lowering surgery treats lid retraction </li> <li>Outcomes depend on severity of disease and timing of interventions</li> </ul>
HIV / AIDS. What is it?
<ul><li>Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that may cause acquired immunodeficiency disease syndrome (AIDS)</li><li>Systemic manifestations based on immune reaction to virus and infections arising from immune-compromised state</li> <li>Most common ophthalmic manifestations: cotton wool spots ("HIV retinopathy") and retinal necrosis from cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, or herpes zoster virus ("herpesvirus retinopathy")</li> <li>Less common ophthalmic manifestations: retinal, uveal, optic nerve infections from syphilis, toxoplasmosis, cryptococcosis </li> </ul>
HIV / AIDS. How does it appear?
<ul> <li>Vision loss if lesions are large, lie near fovea, or in optic nerve</li> <li>Cotton wool spots, reflecting immune reaction to virus</li> <li>Retinal necrosis sometimes starting in periphery, reflecting herpesvirus infection</li> <li>Vitreous clouding from spread of retinal or uveal inflammation</li> <li>Optic neuropathy, with or without optic disc edema, reflecting infection by herpesviruses, syphilis, toxoplasma, cryptococcus, other organisms</li> </ul>
HIV / AIDS. What else looks like it?
<ul><li>Cotton wool spots merely reflect retinal microvascular occlusive disease, caused by many other conditions</li> <li>In severe body trauma and pancreatitis, think of <a>Purtscher retinopathy</a></li><li>Retinal necrosis can be mimicked by uveitis, endophthalmitis</li></ul>
HIV / AIDS. How do you manage it?
<ul> <li>Refer to ophthalmologist any patient with HIV/AIDS who has visual symptoms or low CD4 count or high viral load</li> </ul>
HIV / AIDS. What will happen?
<ul> <li>Cotton wool spots usually disappear spontaneously, leaving behind tiny areas of retinal infarction not noticeable to patient unless very large or close to fovea</li> <li>If disease controlled, no further ophthalmic problems occur</li> <li>In severe disease, herpesvirus retinopathy may destroy retina within weeks, so...</li> <li>Intravitreal and systemic antiviral treatment are critical to halt disease</li> <li>Other infections must be diagnosed and treated appropriately to preserve vision</li> </ul>
Horner Syndrome. What is it?
<ul> <li>Unilateral ptosis, miosis, and sometimes facial anhydrosis</li> <li>Interruption of sympathetic nervous system pathway anywhere between hypothalamus and eye</li> <li>May be isolated manifestation </li> <li>Main causes of acute isolated Horner syndrome: spontaneous or traumatic dissection of cervical carotid artery, neck/upper chest trauma from insertion of venous catheter </li> </ul>
Horner Syndrome. How does it appear?
<ul><li>Droopy upper lid and small but reactive pupil on same side</li><li>Difference in pupil size between the two eyes (anisocoria) rarely greater than 2mm</li><li>Ptosis rarely greater than 2mm</li><li>Neck pain sometimes</li> </ul>
Horner Syndrome. What else looks like it?
<ul><li>Ptosis from <a>myasthenia gravis</a>, trauma, or <a>third nerve palsy</a></li><li>Miosis from eye trauma or inflammation</li> </ul>
Horner Syndrome. How do you manage it?
<ul> <li>Refer patient emergently to ophthalmologist or emergency room if you find upper lid ptosis and miosis, especially if acute and accompanied by new neck pain</li> <li>Refer patient non-emergently for chronic ptosis</li> </ul>
Horner Syndrome. What will happen?
<ul> <li>Ophthalmologist will instill apraclonidine 0.5% or cocaine 10% into both eyes to confirm denervated iris of Horner syndrome</li> <li>Acute isolated Horner syndrome common after neck/upper chest surgery and after insertion of central venous catheter</li><li>Otherwise acute isolated Horner syndrome suggests <a>cervical carotid dissection</a> and chance for stroke</li> <li>Evaluation of <em>acute</em> isolated Horner syndrome includes emergent vascular imaging (CTA or MRA)</li> <li>If dissection confirmed, aspirin or anticoagulant will be prescribed</li> <li>Chronic isolated Horner syndrome may be caused by neck or paraspinal tumors, old neck/chest trauma, middle ear infection</li> <li>Evaluation of <em>chronic</em> isolated Horner syndrome includes neck and upper chest imaging (CT or MRI)</li> </ul>
Leukemia. What is it?
<ul> <li>Neoplastic proliferation of white blood cells </li> <li>Four main types: acute and chronic myelogenous, acute and chronic lymphogenous</li> <li>Systemic manifestations include fever, fatigue, bleeding, lymph node and spleen enlargement </li> <li>Diagnosis based on blood count, blood smear, and bone marrow pathology</li> <li>Most common ophthalmic manifestation: retinal hemorrhages </li> </ul>
Leukemia. How does it appear?
<ul> <li><a>Retinal hemorrhages</a></li><li>Occur when platelet count drops to 20,000 or below</li> <li>Retinal artery or vein occlusions occur if total leukocyte count is 100,000 or above</li> </ul>
Leukemia. What else looks like it?
<ul> <li>Other blood dyscrasias </li> <li>Diabetes mellitus, but more hard exudates</li> <li>Systemic hypertension, connective tissue disorders, vasculitis</li></ul>
Leukemia. How do you manage it?
<ul> <li>Refer urgently any patient with new vision loss and known leukemia or other blood dyscrasia</li> </ul>
Leukemia. What will happen?
<ul> <li>Retinal changes will resolve spontaneously if blood counts improve</li> <li>White cell counts above 100,000 can lead to slowed blood flow ("leukostasis") and occlusion of large retinal vessels with permanent vision loss</li> </ul>
Lupus Erythematosus. What is it?
<ul> <li>Autoimmune disorder targeting blood cells and many organs </li> <li>Systemic manifestations: fatigue, fever, joint aches, confusion, butterfly rash on cheeks, chest pain, Raynaud phenomenon</li> <li>Ophthalmic manifestations: cotton wool spots, flame-shaped hemorrhages, and retinal infarctions, reflecting occlusions of small retinal arteries </li> </ul>
Lupus Erythematosus. How does it appear?
<ul><li>No vision loss unless retinal abnormalities are large or occur near fovea</li> <li><a>Cotton wool spots</a>: white blotches on retinal surface that obscure underlying retina</li> <li><a>Flame-shaped hemorrhages</a>: slender red smears on retinal surface</li> <li><a>Retinal arteriolar occlusions</a>: areas of gray turbidity</li> </ul>