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System Pathology Exam > System Pathology Exam > Flashcards

System Pathology Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Why is respiratory failure defined as an arterial PO2 below 60mmHg?

A

Due to the sigmoid shape of the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve, if the arterial PO2 falls below 60mmHg, haemoglobin saturation begins to fall off steeply and thus represents an increased risk of tissue ischaemia.

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2
Q

What is FEV1?

A

Forced Expiratory Volume in the 1st second of a Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) test. FEV1 is a measure of the rate of exhalation and is impaired in patients with obstructive diseases.

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3
Q

Why can COPD be diagnosed by a reduced FEV1 to FVC ratio?

A

COPD patients cannot exhale air as quickly as normal patients due to the obstruction of their airways, hence their FEV1 is low (less than 80% of FVC). However, the final FVC volume can be relatively normal in mild or moderate cases.

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4
Q

Name two autoimmune thyroid disorders.

A
  1. Graves’ disease: Caused by TSH receptor antibodies leading to hyperthyroidism. Lab tests show high T4 and low TSH.
  2. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis: Autoimmune destruction of the thyroid gland causing hypothyroidism. Lab tests show low T4 and high TSH.
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5
Q

What is type 1 diabetes?

A

An autoimmune disease that destroys beta cells in the pancreas, preventing insulin synthesis, often leading to hyperglycaemia and weight loss.

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6
Q

How is type 1 diabetes treated?

A
  1. Ultra-short acting insulin given 5 min before meals.
  2. Short acting insulin with zinc buffer 15-30 min before meals.
  3. Intermediate acting insulin (insulin + Zn acetate buffer or Isophane insulin).
  4. Long acting analogue insulin.
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7
Q

What is Alzheimer’s disease?

A

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease and the most common cause of dementia in the Western world.

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8
Q

What are the three most common causes of a stroke?

A

i) Cerebral infarction due to blockage of a cerebral artery.
ii) Intracerebral haemorrhage due to rupture of a vessel into the brain tissue.
iii) Subarachnoid haemorrhage due to rupture of a blood vessel into the subarachnoid space.

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9
Q

What are five metabolic and hormonal changes observed in chronic renal failure?

A

High Urea and Creatinine, Hyperkalaemia, Hypocalcaemia, Increased PTH, Hyperphosphataemia, Increased uric acid, Metabolic acidosis.

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10
Q

What are the causative factors of essential hypertension?

A

Salt sensitivity, psychological stress, hypersensitivity to circulating plasma catecholamines, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system dysfunction.

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11
Q

What is secondary hypertension?

A

Secondary hypertension is when the underlying cause of the hypertension is known, such as renal disease, endocrine disorders, or drugs.

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12
Q

What are the four main groups of immune disorders?

A

Primary Immunodeficiencies, Secondary Immunodeficiencies, Autoimmune Diseases, Allergy and Hypersensitivity.

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13
Q

What causes Myasthenia Gravis?

A

Muscle weakness is caused by circulating antibodies that block acetylcholine receptors at the postsynaptic neuromuscular junction.

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14
Q

How does obesity cause Type 2 diabetes?

A

Obesity leads to insulin resistance and insufficient insulin release from beta cells in the pancreas, resulting in elevated blood glucose levels.

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15
Q

Describe the pathophysiological features of Crohn’s disease.

A

Weight loss, lethargy, malaise, inflammation of the tongue, deep ulcers, abscesses or fistulae, and patchy changes causing skip lesions.

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16
Q

Name five short-term effects of ethanol consumption.

A

Hangover, Headache, Diarrhoea, Anorexia, Tremor, Fatigue, Nausea, Dehydration, Low blood sugar, Psychological and sleep disturbances.

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17
Q

Name five risk factors for cardiovascular disease.

A

Hypertension, Serum cholesterol, Obesity, Diabetes Mellitus, Physical Inactivity, Cigarette Smoking, Alcohol Intake.

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18
Q

Name the two main types of arthritis.

A

Rheumatoid Arthritis, Osteoarthritis.

19
Q

Name two neurodegenerative conditions.

A

Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease.

20
Q

What is the pathogenesis and clinical diagnosis of meningitis?

A

Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges caused by bacteria or viruses. Symptoms include headache, stiff neck, nausea, and vomiting. Diagnosis is by lumbar puncture.

21
Q

Discuss the current surgical and drug treatments for obesity.

A

Bariatric surgery (gastric bypass), Orlistat (inhibits fat absorption), alpha-amylase inhibitors, GLP-1 agonists.

22
Q

Outline the physiological features of Alcoholic Liver Disease.

A

ALD includes steatosis (fatty liver), alcoholic hepatitis (inflammation), and cirrhosis (fibrosis and liver dysfunction).

23
Q

Describe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

A

COPD is caused by smoke or pollution damaging airways, leading to chronic bronchitis and emphysema, resulting in progressive airflow obstruction.

24
Q

What are the current treatments for Type 1 Diabetes?

A

Insulin therapy includes ultra-short, short, intermediate, and long-acting insulins, as well as insulin pumps for continuous delivery.

25
Q

Compare the disorders of the thyroid gland.

A

Graves’ disease (hyperthyroidism) vs. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis (hypothyroidism) and goitre (iodine deficiency).

26
Q

Define Acute Renal Failure (ARF) and discuss its pathophysiology.

A

ARF can be prerenal (hypoperfusion), intrinsic (acute tubular necrosis), or postrenal (obstruction).

27
Q

What are the types of acute kidney injury mentioned?

A

Acute tubular necrosis and acute interstitial nephritis.

28
Q

What causes acute tubular necrosis?

A

It is the most common necrosis of the tubule following hypoxic or nephrotoxic injury, caused by substances like ethylene glycol, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and certain antibiotics.

29
Q

What usually results in acute interstitial nephritis?

A

It usually results from immune-mediated drug sensitivity or infection.

30
Q

What is postrenal failure?

A

A decline in glomerular filtration rate (GFR) secondary to lower or upper tract obstruction.

31
Q

What can cause urinary tract obstruction?

A

Obstruction can be secondary to structural, congenital changes, ectopic ureter, deformed vessels, or stones.

32
Q

What can precipitate in a distal nephron and cause renal obstruction?

A

Uric acid.

33
Q

What is the pathophysiology of renal failure?

A

It involves a decline in renal blood flow, GFR, and urine flow, with mechanisms to counteract volume loss and restore renal perfusion.

34
Q

How does the body respond to impaired oxygen delivery to the kidneys?

A

Vasoconstriction shunts blood to vital organs, leading to acute necrosis when oxygen delivery is impaired.

35
Q

What is atherosclerosis?

A

An inflammatory, degenerative disease of arteries characterized by deposition of atherosclerotic plaques within the vessel.

36
Q

What composes an atherosclerotic plaque?

A

Abnormal smooth muscle cells, macrophages (foam cells), deposits of cholesterol and lipids, and dense layers of connective tissue forming a fibrous cap.

37
Q

What are the risk factors for atherosclerosis?

A

Smoking, high plasma cholesterol, hypertension, obesity, diabetes, sedentary lifestyle, and stress.

38
Q

How does atherosclerosis reduce coronary blood flow?

A

The plaque bulges into the lumen, increasing resistance to flow, and dysfunctional endothelial cells release excess vasoconstrictors.

39
Q

What does ulcerative colitis affect?

A

It affects the colon and primarily the mucosa, not deeper bowel walls.

40
Q

What are the symptoms of ulcerative colitis?

A

Bleeding and mucus in stool, often bloody with mucus.

41
Q

What characterizes Crohn’s disease?

A

It affects all layers of the bowel wall, leading to thickening and deep ulcers, and can cause abscesses or fistulae.

42
Q

What are the symptoms of ileal Crohn’s disease?

A

Abdominal pain, diarrhea, weight loss, and potential obstruction.

43
Q

What are the systemic complications of Crohn’s disease?

A

Arthritis and conjunctivitis.

44
Q

What is a potential life-threatening complication of Crohn’s disease?

A

Toxic megacolon due to bacteria, with a risk of perforation causing peritonitis.

System Pathology Exam (5 decks)

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