Syntax Flashcards

Question

The subject often refers to....whereas the predicate often refers to...

Answer 1

1. something already known from the context | 2. a new piece of information

Answer 2

Because in all finite clauses all the arguments and their complementation are expressed

Answer 3

...when a part of a simple sentence or main clause

Answer 4

When a non-finite verb phrase (infinitive, participle and gerund) appear in a subordinate condensed clause - I saw a woman WALKING HER DOG.

Answer 5

A predicator is the verb form of the predicate. It consists of the main verb only, or auxiliaries (modal, primary - be, do, have) + NF form of lexical verbs

Answer 6

The operator is the first auxiliary of the finite verb form.

Answer 7

object(s), subject complement, adverbial (obligatory or adjunct)

Answer 8

1. Transitive - consists of transitive verbs and its complementation, can be followed by adjuncts 2. Intransitive - includes intransitive verbs and adjuncts. Many of these sentences can be changed into verbo-nominal predication (she is a quick runner). Some of these sentences can be considered as medium passive (not passive formally, but implying passive meaning) Linking verbs - included in intransitives.

Answer 9

a noun, a NP, an adjective, a F phrase and a NF phrase

Answer 10

intensive predication, subject predication

Answer 11

Intensive (the rest is called extensive).

Answer 12

Referent, which is characterizing the subject or referent, which is identifying the subject

Answer 13

1. qualification: complements are very often ADJECTIVES, which can be followed by prepositional phrases, finite or non-finite claused. Adjectival complement: its parts can be a PP or a F clause (subjunctive verb forms in very formal texts, putative should appears after adjective expressing an emotion), a NF clause 2. classification: implies, that the subject is a member of a certain class/group. 3. identification: express identity between the subject and its complement. (The capital of England is London.) Complements can be also expressed by PPs or AdvPs. Some of the complements are really close to idioms.

Answer 14

1. BE: a) verbs of perception - these verbs can change their meaning any syntactic type according to their complementation and become transitive b) verbs expressing a standpoint of the speaker to a fact c) verbs expressing continuation of a state (remain, stay,...) 2.BECOME: they indicate a change of the given state. The change can be quick or slow. verbs GET and BECOME are neutral. 3.HAVE: verbs with object-like complements beware of these, because in different contexts they are transitive. Consider its meaning. a) have - sometimes idioms b)do, make - verbo-nominal predication typical for a professional style c)give, take - the verbo-nominal predication can be changed into fully verbal one d) the rest

Answer 15

Based on conversion and on derivation (she made a conclusion - to conclude)

Answer 16

Those which cannot be used without an expressed object.

Answer 17

a specific type of transitivity where the object is the same as the subject of the originally intransitive verb (He walked the horse X The horse was walking).

Answer 18

The indirect one.

Answer 19

Yes, they can be dependent on the preposition of the verb or on their position in a sentence.

Answer 20

Yes, they can.

Answer 21

Nouns, pronouns in the accusative case, prepositional phrases, clauses preceded by a preposition (F, NF). Finite clauses - indicative verb form, subjunctive verb form (mostly in AmE), putative should. Passive transformations are possible, but they are often changed into extrapositions with an anticipatory "it" at the beginning. NF clauses - infinitives and gerunds can indicate a difference in meaning, with the subject or without a subject.

Answer 22

when the object of the F verb is the subject of a condensed NF clause (I told HIM to come). Common after the verbs of perception. Passive transformations are possible, but not done frequently.

Answer 23

When it is only the subject of the NF clause (I like my sister's writing)

Answer 24

Affected and locative.

Answer 25

S V indirect direct

Answer 26

recipient (most typical), beneficiary (a variety of recipient) and affected.

Answer 27

A noun, a NP, accusative pronouns

Answer 28

When an object is followed by its complement.

Answer 29

Occurs only with complex transitive verbs. realized by a NP, AdjP or a nominal clause., placed immediately after the direct object, retained as a complement in the passive. Semantically defined as an attribute to the object. Complements can follow the object without any link, or there can be a preposition or the verb "be". They considered him (to be) a good student. A noun phrase may be a complement to the subject!! Some transitive require an object complement as well. (They showed me to the party room).

Answer 30

a) adverbs b) adverb phrases c) noun phrases d) prepositional phrases e) finite clauses f) non-finite clauses g) verbless clauses

Answer 31

Adjuncts and subjuncts are included in the sentence. Disjuncts and conjuncts are peripheral to it.

Answer 32

initial, medial 1 (before the operator/ between the two auxiliaries), medial 2 (before the main verb or before complement in intensive predication), final

Answer 33

Manner, place, time, circumstance, result, reason,purpose, condition, concession, cause

Answer 34

Sometimes called process adjuncts (since they modify the process expressed by the verb),the sub-group of means and instrument adjuncts is included in this group. Mostly represented by adverbs, prepositional phrases, sometimes by F and NF clauses, too. Biber adds to this group more subgroubs: comparison, accompaniment/supplement, agent

Answer 35

Preferably prepositional phrases, sometimes adverbs or gerunds with prepositions.

Answer 36

Often prepositional phrases, adverbs or clauses. Indicate either position (Where?) or direction (Where to?). Direction adjuncts can be used only with dynamic verbs. No restriction for position adjuncts. Position and direction can co-occur, or it can be: position + position, direction + direction. Quite often at the final position, but can be in the initial, too. When following an object, they can cause ambiguity (We were talking about the children at school). Biber adds distance adjuncts.

Answer 37

Can be prepositional phrases, noun phrases, adverbs and clauses. The express some point (When?) or duration of time (How long?) and frequency (definite/indefinite). Frequency addjuncts also answer the question "How often?", can co-occur in one sentene(the one denoting longer period is the first as well as the one providing the more specific data) definite: monthly, weekly,... - usually final position indefinite: usually, often, always,... - usually medial positions Biber adds adjuncts of temporal relationships.

Answer 38

Commonly a NF clause or a PP. They are often found with the verb say in clauses introducing direct speech and they refer to the situation of the message: "...." He said smiling. Biber adds respect adjuncts

Answer 39

Closely connected to the verb which meaning they complement significantly. Usually PPs and adverbs and final position. The snow changed into rain.

Answer 40

Most often a PP, sometimes gerund or a F clause. They answer the question "Why?" or "For what reason?"

Answer 41

Answer "For what purpose?". Do not mix them with reason adverbials. Purpose adverbials more clearly express the relation to the future. Infinitive structures are used very often, the end position is typical.

Answer 42

often verbalized by prepositional phrases which can be paraphrased using conditional clauses. Often final position. In case of fire, hurry to the exit.

Answer 43

Suggest, that the reason relation does not work. Usually PP, final position.

Answer 44

PPs including inaminate nouns, usually refer to the origin or provenance and a common preposition is "of". If the noun is animate, it often refers to the author (by) or agent (of, from).

Answer 45

They are subordinate to other sentence elements, mostly to verbs, also nouns, adjective phrases and adverbial phrases. Mary is talking REALLY strangely today. Sometimes, subjuncts can stand outside of the sentence - DO NOT MIX THEM WITH DISJUNCTS!

Answer 46

1) viewpoint adjuncts/ subjuncts (general, volitional, formulaic - a small group implying courtesy - can stand in any adverbial position) 2) Focusing adjuncts/ subjuncts (restrictive, additive). They modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs, usually stand before this element. Some of restrictive adverbials can cause subject-operator inversion. 3) Intensifiers - they only intensify (do not bring new information), most of them precede the verb (adjective, adverb apart from for certain and similar), should be used with dynamic verbs and gradable adjectives, can be also adjectives - idiomatic meaning, divide into: a) emphasizers b) amplifiers c) downtoners (kind of, sort of), stand before the modified element or in the end position.

Answer 47

Conjuncts and disjuncts because they are not included in the sentence, they are not related to anything and usually divided by commas. They can appear in all positions.

Answer 48

Disjuncts are stance adverbials and conjuncts are linking adverbials.

Answer 49

Adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, finite clauses, non-fiinite clauses.

Answer 50

= expressions (phrases) which convey some information about the speaker's/writer's feelings, attitudes or standpoints. Can be modified by "very, quite, more, less,..."

Answer 51

Style and attitudinal. Biber divides into Style, Attitudinal and Epistemic.

Answer 52

they comment on the condition under which the proposition/ statement is said. Can be found in questions and commands. Honestly, I do not think she did it.

Answer 53

They comment on the content of the sentence. They also present speaker's evaluation or assessment: Obviously, evidently,... Evaluation is commonly worded by adverb phrases as: wisely, sensibly, even worse, quite rightly,... They can appear in statements only. Unlike subjuncts, they are separated by commas from the rest of the sentence.

Answer 54

They express speaker's judgement about the information given in the sentence and are used most frequently of all the attitudinal disjuncts. They concern the level of actuality or reality, doubt, certainty,.... For example: certainly, no doubt, probably, according to, in fact,...

Answer 55

By adverbs, prepositional phrases, NF clauses

Answer 56

To link two sentences within the paragraph or a text.

Answer 57

Can appear in most types of sentences, they are usually separated by commas, can be in all positions, but mainly in initial. They cannot be modified.

Answer 58

1) Enumeration, addition (first, then, to begin with, in addition,...) 2) summation : in sum, all in all, in conclusion,... 3) Apposition: reformulate what was already said (In other words, for instance, for example,...) 4) Transition and temporal transition: by the way, meanwhile, in the meantime,... 5) Result: suggest that the following sentence will inform you about the consequence of what was stated before: consequently, thus, so, then,... 6) Contrast, concession: show conflict, contrast or concession: alternatively, though, anyway, besides,...

Answer 59

Clause-like elements attached to the given sentence/clause. Can be F, NF or verbless. The verb of the clause has no complementation. Can be in the same position as disjunct or conjunct, since their function is similar, too. They are the typical feature of spoken language. Such clauses are informal and reveal various attitudes or emotions of the speaker. The frequency of their usage depends on the people's idiolect. Beware of the indirect statements when backshifting: it may look the same, but a comment clause is not syntactically dependent on the preceding/following main clause and their role is to add some comment or to function as a conversation filler. I think that she will come. - not a comment clause She will come, you know. - a comment clause

Answer 60

Tentativeness (I think, I believe), certainty (I'm sure, I bet), emotional attitude (I am afraid), a request for attention (you know, mind you). They are sometimes used to give the speaker a second or two to think about their utterance.

Answer 61

Between the operator and the rest of the predicator. The negation should be expressed as soon in a sentence as possible.

Answer 62

Grammatical (not and no) and lexical. Not negation is much more frequent than no negation. Not usually contracts with the operator. Not all operators can be contracted (may, might). Not is followed by non-assertive forms.

Answer 63

They indicate a difference in meaning. With no-negation, we may feel that there is a so-called "positive expectation". Not-negation is neutral, No-negation tends to be evaluative. At the beginning of the sentence we must use No-negation because not any (not anybody arrived) cannot precede the operator.

Answer 64

Yes, they are. They are also followed by non-assertive forms and may cause partial inversion. Question tags are a part of grammatical negation, too.

Answer 65

It is accomplished by various means and always express some emotional attitude to the given situation: i will never EVER go there. She could hear nothing AT ALL. They had hardly any holidays WHATSOEVER.

Answer 66

It does not negate the whole sentence/clause, but just a phrase or a collocation.

Answer 67

By adding auxiliary do.

Answer 68

It is the part of the sentence/clause which is influenced by negation. It starts with the negative element and its length varies. Typically, the elements not included are: The subject, adjuncts and assertive forms (they have wider scope of negation: Kate DIDN'T EAT some of her chips. Kate DIDN'T EAT all of her chips. Kate DIDN'T EAT ANY OF HER CHIPS.). When moving with the scope of negation, we change the meaning of the whole sentence.

Answer 69

It is the nuclear stress on some part of the clause. It is included in the scope of negation. Crucial for its identification is sentence stress and intonation. Typical intonation is fall+rise. Intonation can change the scope of negation in such a way that it includes even the subject. Also, because of intonation and stress the scope of negation can sometimes extend to the subordinate clause and change its meaning.

Answer 70

It is possible under these conditions: 1) not-negation + lexical negation She wasn't really dishonest. 2) two verb forms in the sentence. I don't like not being told. In these two cases, the resulting meaning is positive. 3) informal speech/slang 4) Negative forms co-occur with the repetition of negation or a combination of not+ no negation. Not here, you can't. No, not here.

Answer 71

Negation is in such sentences connected with the meaning and function of the given auxiliary. Sometimes it is attached to the auxiliary or it negates the meaning of the lexical verb.

Answer 72

NA TOHLE SE JEŠTĚ MUSÍŠ POŘÁDNĚ ZAMĚŘIT. Asi negative.

Answer 73

The relation between two sentence elements. It appear for example between the subject and the verb.

Answer 74

The concord of the number, person, and gender.

Answer 75

Wit the verb "to be".

Answer 76

In case of subject and its complement and also of object and its complement.

Answer 77

Yes, but not always. When this happens, it shows the concord of number, persona and gender (reflexive and possessive forms of pronouns). He washed himself.

Answer 78

Yes, in case of subordinate clauses. Pronouns WHO, WHICH refer to animacy of the noun - > it is a concord of GENDER.

Answer 79

not always because they may function as a reference to singular (especially when functioning as a reference to indefinite pronouns such as someone, everybody, nobody).

Answer 80

1) GRAMMATICAL CONCORD: a singular subject requires a singular verb and vice versa 2) NOTIONAL CONCORD: agreement according to the meaning of the noun, not according to its form. 3) THE PRINCIPLE OF PROXIMITY: the form of the verb is ruled by the noun closest to the verb.

Answer 81

Yes. 1) Some nouns ending with -s are singular and some nouns without plural ENDING have plural MEANING. 2) If the subject is expressed by a prepositional phrase or a F/ NF clause the concord is SINGULAR. 3) If the subject is a NP, the number depends on the head.

Answer 82

If the subject noun indicates plural (collective nouns), but the form is singular, concord follows the intention of the speaker: 1) stressing the meaning (plural) -> the result is NOTIONAL concord. 2) stressing the form-> GRAMMATICAL concord.

Answer 83

This type of concord can be seen in sentences with: 1) Indefinite expressions of amount as subjects: Some of the water has disappeared. 2) Phrases coordinated by either, or neither: Either John or the girls have to do it. 3)Measures and partial numbers (fractions, percentages, decimals,...): mostly according to the head of the NP. In colloquial speech when the amount is taken as similar to much is the concord singular. Some expression of measure (even in plural) are understood as a unit and do not follow the proximity principle.

Answer 84

Yes. 1)Nominalised adjectives: abstract non-personal adjectives - singular Personal adjectives - plural. Nationality adjectives - plural. 2) Singular subjects followed by prepositional phrases and quasi-coordinators (as well as, along with, unlike, rather than,...) usually keep singular concord. 3) "Many a" singular form: Many a student postpones their duties. 4) Means can be singular or plural. After her divorce her means are reduced./ This is the means how to finish it in time.

Answer 85

Appositional - the individual members of the coordinated nouns refer to one unity (person, thing, concept). The non-appositional means that the coordination concerns more than 1 unity and can be understood as a reduction of two clauses.

Answer 86

It is in singular. When it is not clear that the reference is to one unit or when there is ambiguity, we can use plural.

Answer 87

We expect plural verb forms unless both forms are acceptable.

Answer 88

It is a sentence element related to a noun phrase (pronoun, NF verb phrase) about which it brings more information. If it is deleted from a sentence, the sentence stays grammatically correct, but it does not deliver the same information.

Answer 89

Yes, we have restrictive and non-restrictive.

Answer 90

Yes, it can, since it often serves as an explanation for an acronym. It is also one of the types of post-modification of a noun.

Answer 91

equivalence, attribution or inclusion. Commas should be used with such an apposition.

Answer 92

Yes, it can. We saw the most beautiful dog - Kerry Blue Terrier.

Answer 93

Both are common varieties of appositive phrases. a) negative apposition: gives information about what something/someone is not: The students from our university, rather than those from Prague, contributed to the strike. b) multiple: gives multiple information about the head noun/other element.

Answer 94

Yes. For example, that is to say, namely, in other words, as follows especially, mainly,...

Answer 95

- closely related to appositions - explain/identify the meaning of nouns or NPs, which are rather vague semantically - mostly restrictive

Answer 96

1. We use only THAT (zero) which is not an element of the clause, but just a conjunction. 2. The head noun is an abstract noun which needs further explanation. The Czech translation starts with "že".

Answer 97

Yes, they can. Finite: The information that they taught was important. Non-finite: The requirement to stay over the weekend surprised us.

Answer 98

Yes, they can also be wh-clauses: They put a difficult question who was responsible for the failure.

Answer 99

In the position of a subject, object compelement and adverbial.

Answer 100

Yes, it can. Permanent modification is found as a pre-modification (a tall man). Temporal modification is usually post-modification (a man sitting in the corner).

Answer 101

- They start pre-modification. - They include ARTICLES, PRONOUNS, QUANTIFIERS and OTHER EXPRESSIONS. - are divided into pre-determiners, central determiners and post-determiners

Answer 102

- mainly refer to quantity (all, both, half,...) - they can also be multipliers (double, once, twice,...) - also can be exclamations (such, what) -are used before central determiners

Answer 103

- cannot co-occur | - can be used before adjectives or other pre-modifiers

Answer 104

- include numbers and some other quantifiers | - follow central determiners

Answer 105

- can be preceded by determiners and intensifiers: His really extremely good results. Some adjectives are attributive only and then the noun phrase cannot be transformed into a predication. (The only problem - >The problem is only).

Answer 106

- function as adjectives - if they can be used with 'very' or can be graded, then they changed completely into adjectives. - if we use indefinite article, we suggesr a habitual quality. -if we use the definite article we suggest that the situation is specific or temporary. -ing participleXgerund: smiling baby - participle chewing gum - gerund past participles are not used as often as present participles. When used, it is usually a transformation from a passive sentence.

Answer 107

Yes. It is quite frequent in English. Often, the modifying noun and the head noun are so closely related that they are considered to be a compound (pocket money) - only one stress. - Plural nouns in the pre-modification usually become singular.

Answer 108

- involves a lot of ambiguity (especially in connection with an adjective). - the modified noun can be in certain situations omitted and the structure is called "Genitive with ellipsis").

Answer 109

-not really common, but they are certainly open to the creativity of the speaker/author. Her help-me-if-you-can-look.

Answer 110

He wrote beautiful and fascinating poems and books. - we do not know if both were beautiful and fascinating or if only some of them were beautiful and fascinating. -the coordinated pre-modifiers can also have different referents, even if they pre-modify just one head.

Answer 111

- probably the most frequent way - we can find a great variety of prepositions - most frequently used preposition is of, which is indicating the genitive case

Answer 112

It is concerned with the way of rewriting: ``` subjective relationship (Right-to-left): The victory of the team = the team won. These can be changed into -'s genitive ``` ``` Objective relationship (left-to-right): The world of problems = The world has problems ``` Possible ambiguity = some phrases can be interpreted in both ways

Answer 113

Can be found under these conditions: 1) The head noun must be indefinite and the article stands for 'one of' 2) the post-modification must be human and definite. A book of Hemingway's.

Answer 114

- common in post-modification - restructive and non-restrictive. RESTRICTIVE - we can use all the relative pronouns/adverbs including their case forms (whose, whom). The pronoun that is prefered when the pre-modification of the head noun is in the superlative. All the relative pronouns can be omitted and the relative clause is not divided by commas. NON-RESTRICTIVE- only the pronouns who and which and its case forms should be used. We can also find adverbs such as where, why, when. Should be marked by commas, can be omitted.

Answer 115

Here you have extra time to recap everything you know about appositive clauses and appositions in general :D

Answer 116

Adverbs, nouns and adjectives. The post-modifying adjective follows either the indefinite or negative pronouns, or it can serve as a condensing element.

Answer 117

a) condensed restrictive relative clauses (The boy playing the guitar).If the subject of the condensed relative clause differs from the subject of the main clause, it must be expressed with the preposition FOR b) Condensed non-restrictive relative clause My brother John, sitting near the window, is older than I. c) Condensed appositive clauses: The requirement to stay over the weekend surprised us. the infinitive is most common in condensation of appositive clauses, -ing form is more often used instead of relative clauses. The past participle can be found instead of both restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses.

Answer 118

Can appear when: a) more than one modification is applicable to one head. b) one modification can be attached to more than one head c) part of the post-modification is modified, too. B) and c) can be ambiguous

Answer 119

=structures in which the post-modification of a noun is interrupted by other clause elements. The book was sent to me that I lost in Prague. The post-modifying element is moved to the end of the sentence and thus is the focus of the information.

Answer 120

Statemens (declarative structure), questions (interrogative structure), commands (imperative structure) and exclamations (exclamative structure).

Answer 121

- they convey some information - the subject must be expressed unless there is ellipsis - the subject may be moved from its original structure it is due to highlighting, inversion, fronting,...

Answer 122

1. Yes/no questions 2. Wh-questions 3. Alternative questions 4. Declarative questions 5. Exclamatory questions 6. Rhetorical questions 7. Question tags 8. Echo questions/utterances

Answer 123

- the operator is typically placed before the subject and the intonation is rising. - with the lexical verb "be" and exceptionally also the verb "have" the whole verb form can go before the subject. - auxiliary do in questions and negatives - non-assertive expressions (any, anything, ever,...) are often used because the reply is usually open - if assertive forms appear, then they have a positive orientation, which means that a positive answer is expected. - negative orientation appears when a negative element appears. (Can't you come in time?). Negation can be also combined with an assertive expression which changes the negative orientation into a positive. - some negative yes/no questions also function as exclamatory questions - in colloquial register elliptical yes/no questions are quite common.

Answer 124

- asks about information according to the "Q-element" at the beginning. - "Q-elements" can stand for SOAC. - the operator goes before the subject, unless the "Q-element" functions as a subject. - the intonation is falling. - the preposition connected with the object (the verb) should be used at the end of a question. - may include more than one "q-element", in which case the position is up to the speaker's/writer's choice.

Answer 125

- similar to yes/no and wh-questions - the answers are offered in the question and the addressee should choose one Would you like tea, or coffee? -intonation is RISING-FALLING. - if u use only rising intonation, than the question changes into yes/no question. - if a positive and negative alternatives are offered in the given question, the result can be called polar - alternative question.

Answer 126

- differ from statements only in intonation, which is rising - assertive in character and therefore we can sometimes use comment clauses with them, which is impossible in other questions - only assertive expressions should be used and the expected answer is positive

Answer 127

- falling intonation - formally yes/no questions, but they function as exclamations or rhetorical questions - do not need any answer, an agreement is supposed. - positive exclamatory questions express some feelings of the speaker (usually positive) and call for an agreement on the part of the listener, or express strong conviction.

Answer 128

- very close in meaning to exclamatory questions (function more as exclamations which express our opinion; no answer is needed) - if the answer is expected, then positive rhetorical questions call for negative reactions and vice versa.

Answer 129

- question-like structures - if agreement is expected, the intonation is falling - if the answer is left open, the intonation is rising - the form= THE OPERATOR AND THE SUBJECT (expressed by a pronoun) - if the rule about positivity or negativity is not followed, then it is in colloquial speech, it's a source of irony, or it may express the speaker's conlusion.

Answer 130

-used for different purposes: - listener wants to show that they are listening to a speaker - people want to express their surprise, doubt, admiration,... - what the speaker said was not understood properly - the listener shows that they are not prepared to do what they are asked to (in a reaction to a command) We climed Mount Everest. Oh, did you? - these questions can either repeat a part of the original statement, replace some part by a wh-element or simply react to the statement by a short yes/no question connected with the verb form of the statement. - intonation can be raising or falling (dependent on the meaning)

Answer 131

imperative verb form+ no subject | can have a short/long complementation, or it can include just the verb form

Answer 132

No. They do not express tense, aspect or modality. Very rarely, progressive or passive forms are found.

Answer 133

Yes, they can be suggestions or invitations.

Answer 134

When we want to stress the order, the imperative is given to several people at one time or we do not want to adress a specific person. -the subject is very close to vocative. Vocative can stand at the end of the sentence. It is used with titles.

Answer 135

imperative form of let followed by a noun or a pronoun in the object form and bare infinitive. These are more of recommendations than actual commands.

Answer 136

with the auxiliary do.

Answer 137

begins with a wh-element, continue in the declarative structure. - the introductory element can have all the common roles: SOAC - frequently used in shorter patterns (wh-element+the noun/adjective phrase)

Answer 138

Yes. | Formulae, minor clause types.

Answer 139

1. Greetings 2. Expletives: Gosh! Oh dear! 3. Verbless imperatives, exclamations, short (elliptical) questions and answers based on situational context: Why? For no reason. 4. Warnings, calls for help, apologies 5. Aphoristic sentences/parallel structures, proverbs: The more, the better.

Answer 140

-quite a lot of "question-like" sentences, which do not have a finite verb form and do not follow the rules for questions. Why study on such a beautiful day? -there are fragments functioning as main clauses having the structure of subordinate ones: To be in London now! such structures can stand alone and we can consider them to be fragments where the superordinate (matrix) clause has been omitted. - WISHES/OPTATIVES: have a formulaic (fixed in form) structure including verbs in the subjunctive form: Long live the Queen! - subjunctive verb forms are normally found only in subordinate clauses, but here they are the only verb form in an independent clause. Sentence structures with may (+partial inversion) are even more formal than those with the subjunctive. I wish your Christmas were happy. -there are also sentences/phrases formed according to the canonical WO, which function has changed. How do you do? - does not function as a question anymore.

Answer 141

- included in formulaic sentences - condensed information of some kind - commonly found in the journalistic style, especially in headlines - they do not include words of low information value, such as articles or some pronouns.

Answer 142

- empty it - there - nouns/noun phrases - choice usually influenced by the described process

Answer 143

- a noun/noun phrase/ pronoun. He had a sore throat. -a noun (NP) with a possessive pronoun which refers to the location or cause of some situation: His throat was sore.

Answer 144

- genitive Přibylo dětí - The number of children has increased. -accusative Jde o naši budoucnost. - This is a matter of our future. -dative Došlo k několika setkáním. There have been several meetings. -locative Nezáleží na vašich požadavcích. - Your requirements make no difference.

Answer 145

- a noun/NP + passive verb form Her refusal was not reconed with. S jejím odmítnutím se nepočítalo. - general subject + active verb form. People/We worked the whole week. Pracovalo se celý týden. -there as the grammatical subject: There was a long discussion about it. - Mluvilo se o tom dlouze. -gerunds, infinitives, anticipatory it, personal pronouns - often evaluative structure: Skiing is wonderful here. Lyžuje se tu nádherně.

Answer 146

-connected with similar situations as the verbal ones. -speak about weather, place, time, about people and their conditions. -in Czech this consists of linking verb+ complement. -most common subjects are: empty it nouns (+possessive pronouns) personal pronouns other pronouns Je zima. It is cold. verbo-nominal structures expressing modality or attitude are similar to evaluative structures mentioned. -usual subjects: anticipatory it, nouns, there. It is impossible to be there on time. - Je nemožné být tam včas.

Syntax Flashcards

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