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SYNTAX2 > Syntax > Flashcards

Syntax Flashcards

1
Q

What are the relations of words within a sentence?

A

Lexical and structural (an inflectional agreement, complementation, and modification). Rules for lexical are not so strict as for structural.

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2
Q

What is a compulsory agreement? Is it strict?

A

An agreement between a subject and a verb. The rules are strict and can be broken only exceptionally.

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3
Q

What ambiguity can we have in English sentences?

A

Lexical, structural,lexical+structural

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4
Q

What are syntagms?

A

Syntagms are phrases (it is a synonym).

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5
Q

What are the immediate constituents?

A

Constituents whose relations directly establish the phrase.

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6
Q

What are the two parts of a sentence?

A

The subject and the predicate.

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7
Q

What phrases do we have?

A

NP, VP, AjdP, PP, AdvP, DP. Each has different function in a sentence.

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8
Q

What “levels” of dependency do we have?

A

Subordinate and superordinate.

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9
Q

What are lexical relations?

A

Lexical harmony and collocational restrictions.

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10
Q

Ferdinand de Saussure?

A

Structural relations are called syntagmatical and lexical relations are called paradigmatical.

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11
Q

What is valency?

A

the relation of the verb to the remaining obligatory elements of the sentence.

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12
Q

Define valency in connection to transitivity of verbs

A
  1. Zero valency - Grammatical it, no complementation.
  2. Monovalency - intransitive verbs. Usually followed by an adverb (adjunct). Some intransitives expressing decrease, increase or change of state have necessary complementation and therefore are divalent.
  3. Divalency - monotransitive verbs
  4. Trivalency - ditransitive verbs, or complex-transitive verbs
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13
Q

What types of verbs do we have?

A

Transitive, intransitive, and linking (intensive)

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14
Q

What are 7 basic sentence patterns?

A

SV, SVO, SVC, SVOO, SVOA, SVOC, SVA

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15
Q

What is a sentence? And is there any difference between a sentence and a clause?

A

A sentence is a verbal expression of a statement, question, command, request, or exclamation containing normally a subject and a predicate. It is a unit of syntax where constructional and lexical relations are held.

Clauses are not independent, can be F, NF, and verbless.

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16
Q

A simple sentence has to be finite/nonfinite.

A

Finite.

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17
Q

Sentences can be:

A

Simple
Compound (2+ main clauses)
Complex (1 main + 1+subordinate)
Compound-Complex (2+main, the rest is subordinate)

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18
Q

When the subject has to be expressed?

A

In all finite sentences (apart from imperatives) unless there is ellipsis.

In NFs the subject has to be expressed only if it is different from the subject of the superordinate clause.

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19
Q

In what cases are nouns and pronouns (functioning as a subject)?

A

Nouns are in the common case and Pronouns are in the object case.

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20
Q

What is the proposition? What is a nominal part of the sentence?

A

a grammatical structure expressing some semantic content - constituents of the subject and the predicate.

The nominal part of the sentence is the subject.

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21
Q

What are the main realizations of the subject?

A

Single nouns, NPs, pronouns, NF clauses, finite clauses.

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22
Q

What has to be between the subject and the verb?

A

an agreement/concord.

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23
Q

What is a notional subject?

A

The “real” subject of a sentence.

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24
Q

What are the semantic roles of a subject?

A
  1. Agentive: the most typical one, a subject is the initiator of an activity. Such subjects are expressed by animate nouns/pronouns and the verbs are dynamic.
  2. Instrumental: similar to the agentive, but the cause of action is an inanimate noun (Floods destroyed the bridge).
  3. Affected: indicate something happened to the subject and it is typical in sentences with intransitive verbs (The child fell down.).
  4. Recipient/experiencer: used with stative verbs. Sometimes the subject changes into an agent (Mum tasted the soup).
  5. Locative/Temporal: used when we want to predicate something about location or time: Olomouc is rainy today.
  6. Grammatical (empty, dummy) subjects: lack semantic content.
    a) empty it: fills the position of a subject without referring to anything.
    b) anticipatory it: refers to the subject/other sentence element which was moved from its original position.
    c) there in existential sentences: anticipates the notional subject further in the sentence (there is a FLOWER in the vase).
  7. Further roles of “it”:
    a) deictic: similar role as a demonstrative pronoun (Is it your umbrella?).
    b) referential:used as a reference, substitutes given NP (The flower blooms. It looks wonderful.).
  8. General subject: not relating to any special person. One (very formal), you (exclusion of the speaker), we, they (exclusion of the speaker and of the listener - often used when we refer to an activity/custom typical of some location).
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25
Q

The subject often refers to….whereas the predicate often refers to…

A
  1. something already known from the context

2. a new piece of information

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26
Q

why do many grammarians refer implicitly to finite verb forms in connection to predicate?

A

Because in all finite clauses all the arguments and their complementation are expressed

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27
Q

Predicate has to have only finite form when…

A

…when a part of a simple sentence or main clause

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28
Q

What is a secondary predication?

A

When a non-finite verb phrase (infinitive, participle and gerund) appear in a subordinate condensed clause - I saw a woman WALKING HER DOG.

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29
Q

What is a predicator?

A

A predicator is the verb form of the predicate. It consists of the main verb only, or auxiliaries (modal, primary - be, do, have) + NF form of lexical verbs

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30
Q

What is the operator?

A

The operator is the first auxiliary of the finite verb form.

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31
Q

What can be verb complementation?

A

object(s), subject complement, adverbial (obligatory or adjunct)

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32
Q

What are syntactic types of verbs (predication)?

A
  1. Transitive - consists of transitive verbs and its complementation, can be followed by adjuncts
  2. Intransitive - includes intransitive verbs and adjuncts. Many of these sentences can be changed into verbo-nominal predication (she is a quick runner). Some of these sentences can be considered as medium passive (not passive formally, but implying passive meaning)

Linking verbs - included in intransitives.

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33
Q

How can be subject complement done in a sentence?

A

a noun, a NP, an adjective, a F phrase and a NF phrase

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34
Q

How can be also called subject complement?

A

intensive predication, subject predication

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35
Q

How are also called linking verbs?

A

Intensive (the rest is called extensive).

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36
Q

What semantic roles do subject complements have?

A

Referent, which is characterizing the subject or referent, which is identifying the subject

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37
Q

In sentences with a copula (the verb to be) we identify the types of predication which usually express different relations of the subject to the complement or some features/qualities:

A
  1. qualification: complements are very often ADJECTIVES, which can be followed by prepositional phrases, finite or non-finite claused.
    Adjectival complement: its parts can be a PP or a F clause (subjunctive verb forms in very formal texts, putative should appears after adjective expressing an emotion), a NF clause
  2. classification: implies, that the subject is a member of a certain class/group.
  3. identification: express identity between the subject and its complement. (The capital of England is London.)

Complements can be also expressed by PPs or AdvPs. Some of the complements are really close to idioms.

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38
Q

Into which groups are divided other linking verbs?

A
  1. BE:
    a) verbs of perception - these verbs can change their meaning any syntactic type according to their complementation and become transitive
    b) verbs expressing a standpoint of the speaker to a fact

c) verbs expressing continuation of a state (remain, stay,…)

2.BECOME:
they indicate a change of the given state. The change can be quick or slow.
verbs GET and BECOME are neutral.

3.HAVE:
verbs with object-like complements
beware of these, because in different contexts they are transitive. Consider its meaning.
a) have - sometimes idioms
b)do, make - verbo-nominal predication typical for a professional style
c)give, take - the verbo-nominal predication can be changed into fully verbal one
d) the rest

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39
Q

Of what types are verbo-nominal constructions?

A

Based on conversion and on derivation (she made a conclusion - to conclude)

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40
Q

What are inherently transitive verbs?

A

Those which cannot be used without an expressed object.

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41
Q

What is causativity?

A

a specific type of transitivity where the object is the same as the subject of the originally intransitive verb (He walked the horse X The horse was walking).

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42
Q

Which object can be used only with the direct one?

A

The indirect one.

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43
Q

Can be both objects prepositional?

A

Yes, they can be dependent on the preposition of the verb or on their position in a sentence.

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44
Q

Can both objects become the subject of a passive sentence?

A

Yes, they can.

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45
Q

How are objects often realized in a sentence with a mono-transitive verb?

A

Nouns, pronouns in the accusative case, prepositional phrases, clauses preceded by a preposition (F, NF).

Finite clauses - indicative verb form, subjunctive verb form (mostly in AmE), putative should. Passive transformations are possible, but they are often changed into extrapositions with an anticipatory “it” at the beginning.

NF clauses - infinitives and gerunds can indicate a difference in meaning, with the subject or without a subject.

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46
Q

What is a double role of an object?

A

when the object of the F verb is the subject of a condensed NF clause (I told HIM to come). Common after the verbs of perception. Passive transformations are possible, but not done frequently.

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47
Q

What is a one role of an object?

A

When it is only the subject of the NF clause (I like my sister’s writing)

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48
Q

What are semantic roles of objects?

A

Affected and locative.

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49
Q

What is word order in an unmarked speech (both objects used)?

A

S V indirect direct

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50
Q

What are semantic roles of an indirect object?

A

recipient (most typical), beneficiary (a variety of recipient) and affected.

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51
Q

How is an indirect object realized in a sentence?

A

A noun, a NP, accusative pronouns

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52
Q

How can be an indirect object paraphrised?

A

by a PP.

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53
Q

What is a complex transitive complementation?

A

When an object is followed by its complement.

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54
Q

What is an object complement?

A

Occurs only with complex transitive verbs. realized by a NP, AdjP or a nominal clause., placed immediately after the direct object, retained as a complement in the passive. Semantically defined as an attribute to the object. Complements can follow the object without any link, or there can be a preposition or the verb “be”.

They considered him (to be) a good student.

A noun phrase may be a complement to the subject!!

Some transitive require an object complement as well. (They showed me to the party room).

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55
Q

How are adverbials usually expressed?

A

a) adverbs
b) adverb phrases
c) noun phrases
d) prepositional phrases
e) finite clauses
f) non-finite clauses
g) verbless clauses

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56
Q

What is the difference between adjuncts, subjuncts, discjuncts and conjuncts in terms of their positions?

A

Adjuncts and subjuncts are included in the sentence. Disjuncts and conjuncts are peripheral to it.

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57
Q

What positions can ADJUNCTS have?

A

initial, medial 1 (before the operator/ between the two auxiliaries), medial 2 (before the main verb or before complement in intensive predication), final

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58
Q

What is the usual sequence if more adverbials co-occur in a one sentence?

A

MPT

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59
Q

What are the semantic roles of adjuncts?

A

Manner, place, time, circumstance, result, reason,purpose, condition, concession, cause

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60
Q

What do you know about manner adjuncts?

A

Sometimes called process adjuncts (since they modify the process expressed by the verb),the sub-group of means and instrument adjuncts is included in this group.
Mostly represented by adverbs, prepositional phrases, sometimes by F and NF clauses, too.
Biber adds to this group more subgroubs: comparison, accompaniment/supplement, agent

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61
Q

What do you know about means and instrument adjuncts?

A

Preferably prepositional phrases, sometimes adverbs or gerunds with prepositions.

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62
Q

What do you know about place adjuncts?

A

Often prepositional phrases, adverbs or clauses. Indicate either position (Where?) or direction (Where to?). Direction adjuncts can be used only with dynamic verbs. No restriction for position adjuncts.
Position and direction can co-occur, or it can be: position + position, direction + direction. Quite often at the final position, but can be in the initial, too. When following an object, they can cause ambiguity (We were talking about the children at school).
Biber adds distance adjuncts.

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63
Q

What do you know about time adjuncts?

A

Can be prepositional phrases, noun phrases, adverbs and clauses. The express some point (When?) or duration of time (How long?) and frequency (definite/indefinite). Frequency addjuncts also answer the question “How often?”, can co-occur in one sentene(the one denoting longer period is the first as well as the one providing the more specific data)

definite: monthly, weekly,… - usually final position
indefinite: usually, often, always,… - usually medial positions

Biber adds adjuncts of temporal relationships.

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64
Q

What do you know about circumstance adjuncts?

A

Commonly a NF clause or a PP. They are often found with the verb say in clauses introducing direct speech and they refer to the situation of the message:

“….” He said smiling.

Biber adds respect adjuncts

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65
Q

What do you know about result adjuncts?

A

Closely connected to the verb which meaning they complement significantly. Usually PPs and adverbs and final position.

The snow changed into rain.

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66
Q

What do you know about reason adjuncts?

A

Most often a PP, sometimes gerund or a F clause.

They answer the question “Why?” or “For what reason?”

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67
Q

What do you know about purpose adjuncts?

A

Answer “For what purpose?”. Do not mix them with reason adverbials. Purpose adverbials more clearly express the relation to the future.
Infinitive structures are used very often, the end position is typical.

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68
Q

What do you know about condition adjuncts?

A

often verbalized by prepositional phrases which can be paraphrased using conditional clauses. Often final position.

In case of fire, hurry to the exit.

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69
Q

What do you know about concession adjuncts?

A

Suggest, that the reason relation does not work. Usually PP, final position.

70
Q

What do you know about cause adjuncts?

A

PPs including inaminate nouns, usually refer to the origin or provenance and a common preposition is “of”. If the noun is animate, it often refers to the author (by) or agent (of, from).

71
Q

What is “special” about subjuncts?

A

They are subordinate to other sentence elements, mostly to verbs, also nouns, adjective phrases and adverbial phrases.

Mary is talking REALLY strangely today.

Sometimes, subjuncts can stand outside of the sentence - DO NOT MIX THEM WITH DISJUNCTS!

72
Q

If we accept subjuncts as one type of adverbials, which adjuncts do fall into this category?

A

1) viewpoint adjuncts/ subjuncts (general, volitional, formulaic - a small group implying courtesy - can stand in any adverbial position)
2) Focusing adjuncts/ subjuncts (restrictive, additive). They modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs, usually stand before this element. Some of restrictive adverbials can cause subject-operator inversion.
3) Intensifiers - they only intensify (do not bring new information), most of them precede the verb (adjective, adverb apart from for certain and similar), should be used with dynamic verbs and gradable adjectives, can be also adjectives - idiomatic meaning, divide into:

a) emphasizers
b) amplifiers
c) downtoners (kind of, sort of), stand before the modified element or in the end position.

73
Q

What are sentence adverbials?

A

Conjuncts and disjuncts because they are not included in the sentence, they are not related to anything and usually divided by commas.
They can appear in all positions.

74
Q

What is the difference between disjuncts and conjuncts?

A

Disjuncts are stance adverbials and conjuncts are linking adverbials.

75
Q

What are formal realisations of sentence adverbials?

A

Adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, finite clauses, non-fiinite clauses.

76
Q

What are disjuncts?

A

= expressions (phrases) which convey some information about the speaker’s/writer’s feelings, attitudes or standpoints. Can be modified by “very, quite, more, less,…”

77
Q

To which groups can be disjuncts divided?

A

Style and attitudinal. Biber divides into Style, Attitudinal and Epistemic.

78
Q

What do you know about style disjuncts?

A

they comment on the condition under which the proposition/ statement is said. Can be found in questions and commands.

Honestly, I do not think she did it.

79
Q

What do you know about attitudinal disjuncts?

A

They comment on the content of the sentence. They also present speaker’s evaluation or assessment: Obviously, evidently,…

Evaluation is commonly worded by adverb phrases as: wisely, sensibly, even worse, quite rightly,…

They can appear in statements only. Unlike subjuncts, they are separated by commas from the rest of the sentence.

80
Q

What do you know about epistemic disjuncts?

A

They express speaker’s judgement about the information given in the sentence and are used most frequently of all the attitudinal disjuncts. They concern the level of actuality or reality, doubt, certainty,….

For example: certainly, no doubt, probably, according to, in fact,…

81
Q

How are conjuncts usually expressed in a sentence?

A

By adverbs, prepositional phrases, NF clauses

82
Q

What is the role of conjuncts in a sentence?

A

To link two sentences within the paragraph or a text.

83
Q

What are the syntactic features of conjuncts?

A

Can appear in most types of sentences, they are usually separated by commas, can be in all positions, but mainly in initial. They cannot be modified.

84
Q

What are the sub-classes of conjuncts?

A

1) Enumeration, addition (first, then, to begin with, in addition,…)
2) summation : in sum, all in all, in conclusion,…
3) Apposition: reformulate what was already said (In other words, for instance, for example,…)
4) Transition and temporal transition: by the way, meanwhile, in the meantime,…
5) Result: suggest that the following sentence will inform you about the consequence of what was stated before: consequently, thus, so, then,…
6) Contrast, concession: show conflict, contrast or concession: alternatively, though, anyway, besides,…

85
Q

What are comment clauses?

A

Clause-like elements attached to the given sentence/clause. Can be F, NF or verbless. The verb of the clause has no complementation.

Can be in the same position as disjunct or conjunct, since their function is similar, too.

They are the typical feature of spoken language. Such clauses are informal and reveal various attitudes or emotions of the speaker.

The frequency of their usage depends on the people’s idiolect.

Beware of the indirect statements when backshifting: it may look the same, but a comment clause is not syntactically dependent on the preceding/following main clause and their role is to add some comment or to function as a conversation filler.

I think that she will come. - not a comment clause

She will come, you know. - a comment clause

86
Q

To which clauses can be comment clauses divided?

A

Tentativeness (I think, I believe), certainty (I’m sure, I bet), emotional attitude (I am afraid), a request for attention (you know, mind you).

They are sometimes used to give the speaker a second or two to think about their utterance.

87
Q

Where is inserted “not” in the sentence?

A

Between the operator and the rest of the predicator.

The negation should be expressed as soon in a sentence as possible.

88
Q

What types of negation do we have?

A

Grammatical (not and no) and lexical.

Not negation is much more frequent than no negation. Not usually contracts with the operator. Not all operators can be contracted (may, might).
Not is followed by non-assertive forms.

89
Q

Is no negation and not negation different in any way?

A

They indicate a difference in meaning. With no-negation, we may feel that there is a so-called “positive expectation”.

Not-negation is neutral, No-negation tends to be evaluative.

At the beginning of the sentence we must use No-negation because not any (not anybody arrived) cannot precede the operator.

90
Q

Are expressions indicating negation but not being negative formally a part of grammatical negation? What about question tags?

A

Yes, they are. They are also followed by non-assertive forms and may cause partial inversion.

Question tags are a part of grammatical negation, too.

91
Q

What do you know about negative intensification?

A

It is accomplished by various means and always express some emotional attitude to the given situation:

i will never EVER go there.
She could hear nothing AT ALL.
They had hardly any holidays WHATSOEVER.

92
Q

What do you know about local negation?

A

It does not negate the whole sentence/clause, but just a phrase or a collocation.

93
Q

How do we express negation in imperative sentences?

A

By adding auxiliary do.

94
Q

What is the scope of negation?

A

It is the part of the sentence/clause which is influenced by negation. It starts with the negative element and its length varies. Typically, the elements not included are:

The subject, adjuncts and assertive forms (they have wider scope of negation:

Kate DIDN’T EAT some of her chips.
Kate DIDN’T EAT all of her chips.
Kate DIDN’T EAT ANY OF HER CHIPS.).

When moving with the scope of negation, we change the meaning of the whole sentence.

95
Q

What is the focus of negation? What about intonation?

A

It is the nuclear stress on some part of the clause. It is included in the scope of negation. Crucial for its identification is sentence stress and intonation.
Typical intonation is fall+rise.

Intonation can change the scope of negation in such a way that it includes even the subject. Also, because of intonation and stress the scope of negation can sometimes extend to the subordinate clause and change its meaning.

96
Q

What do you know about multiple negation?

A

It is possible under these conditions:

1) not-negation + lexical negation

She wasn’t really dishonest.

2) two verb forms in the sentence.

I don’t like not being told.

In these two cases, the resulting meaning is positive.

3) informal speech/slang
4) Negative forms co-occur with the repetition of negation or a combination of not+ no negation.

Not here, you can’t. No, not here.

97
Q

What about negation and modal verbs?

A

Negation is in such sentences connected with the meaning and function of the given auxiliary. Sometimes it is attached to the auxiliary or it negates the meaning of the lexical verb.

98
Q

Which pronouns can be used in negative sentences?

A

NA TOHLE SE JEŠTĚ MUSÍŠ POŘÁDNĚ ZAMĚŘIT.

Asi negative.

99
Q

What is concord/agreement?

A

The relation between two sentence elements. It appear for example between the subject and the verb.

100
Q

What “types of concord” do we distinguish?

A

The concord of the number, person, and gender.

101
Q

When do we distinguish the concord of person?

A

Wit the verb “to be”.

102
Q

When do we distinguish the concord of number?

A

In case of subject and its complement and also of object and its complement.

103
Q

Is there any relation of the subject and the object?

A

Yes, but not always. When this happens, it shows the concord of number, persona and gender (reflexive and possessive forms of pronouns).

He washed himself.

104
Q

Are there any rules for concord of pronouns?

A

Yes, in case of subordinate clauses. Pronouns WHO, WHICH refer to animacy of the noun - > it is a concord of GENDER.

105
Q

Do plural personal and possessive pronouns always need to follow the concord of number?

A

not always because they may function as a reference to singular (especially when functioning as a reference to indefinite pronouns such as someone, everybody, nobody).

106
Q

What are the three principles which the concord of number between the subject and the verb follows?

A

1) GRAMMATICAL CONCORD: a singular subject requires a singular verb and vice versa
2) NOTIONAL CONCORD: agreement according to the meaning of the noun, not according to its form.
3) THE PRINCIPLE OF PROXIMITY: the form of the verb is ruled by the noun closest to the verb.

107
Q

Are there any exceptions to the grammatical concord rule concerning the subject and the verb?

A

Yes.
1) Some nouns ending with -s are singular and some nouns without plural ENDING have plural MEANING.

2) If the subject is expressed by a prepositional phrase or a F/ NF clause the concord is SINGULAR.
3) If the subject is a NP, the number depends on the head.

108
Q

What do you know about notional concord?

A

If the subject noun indicates plural (collective nouns), but the form is singular, concord follows the intention of the speaker:

1) stressing the meaning (plural) -> the result is NOTIONAL concord.
2) stressing the form-> GRAMMATICAL concord.

109
Q

What do you know about the principle of promiximity?

A

This type of concord can be seen in sentences with:

1) Indefinite expressions of amount as subjects:

Some of the water has disappeared.

2) Phrases coordinated by either, or neither:

Either John or the girls have to do it.

3)Measures and partial numbers (fractions, percentages, decimals,…):

mostly according to the head of the NP. In colloquial speech when the amount is taken as similar to much is the concord singular. Some expression of measure (even in plural) are understood as a unit and do not follow the proximity principle.

110
Q

Are there any further rules concerning concord?

A

Yes.

1)Nominalised adjectives:
abstract non-personal adjectives - singular

Personal adjectives - plural.
Nationality adjectives - plural.

2) Singular subjects followed by prepositional phrases and quasi-coordinators (as well as, along with, unlike, rather than,…) usually keep singular concord.
3) “Many a” singular form:

Many a student postpones their duties.

4) Means can be singular or plural.

After her divorce her means are reduced./ This is the means how to finish it in time.

111
Q

What is the difference between appositional and non-appositional coordination?

A

Appositional - the individual members of the coordinated nouns refer to one unity (person, thing, concept).

The non-appositional means that the coordination concerns more than 1 unity and can be understood as a reduction of two clauses.

112
Q

What number is the verb if the coordination is appositional?

A

It is in singular. When it is not clear that the reference is to one unit or when there is ambiguity, we can use plural.

113
Q

What verb form we expect in the non-appositional coordination?

A

We expect plural verb forms unless both forms are acceptable.

114
Q

What is an apposition?

A

It is a sentence element related to a noun phrase (pronoun, NF verb phrase) about which it brings more information. If it is deleted from a sentence, the sentence stays grammatically correct, but it does not deliver the same information.

115
Q

Do appositive structures differ?

A

Yes, we have restrictive and non-restrictive.

116
Q

Can be apposition done in parentheses?

A

Yes, it can, since it often serves as an explanation for an acronym. It is also one of the types of post-modification of a noun.

117
Q

What can express the non-restrictive apposition?

A

equivalence, attribution or inclusion. Commas should be used with such an apposition.

118
Q

Can a dash be used together with a restrictive apposition/appositive phrase?

A

Yes, it can.

We saw the most beautiful dog - Kerry Blue Terrier.

119
Q

What do you know about negative and multiple appositions?

A

Both are common varieties of appositive phrases.

a) negative apposition: gives information about what something/someone is not:
The students from our university, rather than those from Prague, contributed to the strike.

b) multiple: gives multiple information about the head noun/other element.

120
Q

Are there any explicit indicators of apposition?

A

Yes. For example, that is to say, namely, in other words, as follows especially, mainly,…

121
Q

What do you know about appositive clauses?

A
  • closely related to appositions
  • explain/identify the meaning of nouns or NPs, which are rather vague semantically
  • mostly restrictive
122
Q

What are the important differences between the appositive clause and the relative clause?

A
  1. We use only THAT (zero) which is not an element of the clause, but just a conjunction.
  2. The head noun is an abstract noun which needs further explanation. The Czech translation starts with “že”.
123
Q

Can be appositive clauses Finite and Non-finite?

A

Yes, they can.

Finite: The information that they taught was important.

Non-finite:
The requirement to stay over the weekend surprised us.

124
Q

Can appositive clauses start with anything else than “THAT”?

A

Yes, they can also be wh-clauses:

They put a difficult question who was responsible for the failure.

125
Q

In what positions can we find complex noun phrases?

A

In the position of a subject, object compelement and adverbial.

126
Q

Can the modification of a noun be restrictive and non-restrictive?

What is the difference between temporal and permanent modification?

A

Yes, it can.

Permanent modification is found as a pre-modification (a tall man).

Temporal modification is usually post-modification (a man sitting in the corner).

127
Q

What do you know about determiners?

A
  • They start pre-modification.
  • They include ARTICLES, PRONOUNS, QUANTIFIERS and OTHER EXPRESSIONS.
  • are divided into pre-determiners, central determiners and post-determiners
128
Q

What do you know about pre-determiners?

A
  • mainly refer to quantity (all, both, half,…)
  • they can also be multipliers (double, once, twice,…)
  • also can be exclamations (such, what)

-are used before central determiners

129
Q

What do you know about central determiners?

A
  • cannot co-occur

- can be used before adjectives or other pre-modifiers

130
Q

What do you know about post-determiners?

A
  • include numbers and some other quantifiers

- follow central determiners

131
Q

What do you know about adjectives in the pre-modification?

A
  • can be preceded by determiners and intensifiers:

His really extremely good results.

Some adjectives are attributive only and then the noun phrase cannot be transformed into a predication.

(The only problem - >The problem is only).

132
Q

What do you know about participles in the pre-modification?

A
  • function as adjectives
  • if they can be used with ‘very’ or can be graded, then they changed completely into adjectives.
  • if we use indefinite article, we suggesr a habitual quality.

-if we use the definite article we suggest that the situation is specific or temporary.

-ing participleXgerund:
smiling baby - participle
chewing gum - gerund

past participles are not used as often as present participles. When used, it is usually a transformation from a passive sentence.

133
Q

Can nouns be used in pre-modification?

A

Yes. It is quite frequent in English. Often, the modifying noun and the head noun are so closely related that they are considered to be a compound (pocket money) - only one stress.

  • Plural nouns in the pre-modification usually become singular.
134
Q

What do you know about ‘s genitive in the pre-modification?

A
  • involves a lot of ambiguity (especially in connection with an adjective).
  • the modified noun can be in certain situations omitted and the structure is called “Genitive with ellipsis”).
135
Q

What do you know about adverbials and sentential pre-modifiers?

A

-not really common, but they are certainly open to the creativity of the speaker/author.

Her help-me-if-you-can-look.

136
Q

What are the problems of pre-modification?

A

He wrote beautiful and fascinating poems and books. - we do not know if both were beautiful and fascinating or if only some of them were beautiful and fascinating.

-the coordinated pre-modifiers can also have different referents, even if they pre-modify just one head.

137
Q

What do you know about post-modification done by PPs?

A
  • probably the most frequent way
  • we can find a great variety of prepositions
  • most frequently used preposition is of, which is indicating the genitive case
138
Q

What is the subjective and objective relationship in terms of post-modifying a noun with a PP?

A

It is concerned with the way of rewriting:

subjective relationship (Right-to-left):
The victory of the team = the team won. These can be changed into -'s genitive
Objective relationship (left-to-right):
The world of problems = The world has problems

Possible ambiguity = some phrases can be interpreted in both ways

139
Q

What is the double genitive in the post-modification?

A

Can be found under these conditions:

1) The head noun must be indefinite and the article stands for ‘one of’
2) the post-modification must be human and definite.

A book of Hemingway’s.

140
Q

What do you know about finite relative clauses as post-modifications of a head noun?

A
  • common in post-modification
  • restructive and non-restrictive.

RESTRICTIVE - we can use all the relative pronouns/adverbs including their case forms (whose, whom). The pronoun that is prefered when the pre-modification of the head noun is in the superlative. All the relative pronouns can be omitted and the relative clause is not divided by commas.

NON-RESTRICTIVE- only the pronouns who and which and its case forms should be used. We can also find adverbs such as where, why, when. Should be marked by commas, can be omitted.

141
Q

What do you know about appositive clauses and phrases in the post-modification?

A

Here you have extra time to recap everything you know about appositive clauses and appositions in general :D

142
Q

What are the minor types of post-modification?

A

Adverbs, nouns and adjectives.

The post-modifying adjective follows either the indefinite or negative pronouns, or it can serve as a condensing element.

143
Q

What do you know about post-modification by NF verb forms?

A

a) condensed restrictive relative clauses (The boy playing the guitar).If the subject of the condensed relative clause differs from the subject of the main clause, it must be expressed with the preposition FOR
b) Condensed non-restrictive relative clause

My brother John, sitting near the window, is older than I.

c) Condensed appositive clauses:

The requirement to stay over the weekend surprised us.

the infinitive is most common in condensation of appositive clauses, -ing form is more often used instead of relative clauses. The past participle can be found instead of both restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses.

144
Q

What do you know about multiple post-modification?

A

Can appear when:

a) more than one modification is applicable to one head.
b) one modification can be attached to more than one head
c) part of the post-modification is modified, too.

B) and c) can be ambiguous

145
Q

What do you know about discontinuous noun phrases?

A

=structures in which the post-modification of a noun is interrupted by other clause elements.

The book was sent to me that I lost in Prague.

The post-modifying element is moved to the end of the sentence and thus is the focus of the information.

146
Q

How we divide simple sentences according to their communicative function?

A

Statemens (declarative structure), questions (interrogative structure), commands (imperative structure) and exclamations (exclamative structure).

147
Q

What do you know about statements?

A
  • they convey some information
  • the subject must be expressed unless there is ellipsis
  • the subject may be moved from its original structure it is due to highlighting, inversion, fronting,…
148
Q

How many types of questions do you know?

A
  1. Yes/no questions
  2. Wh-questions
  3. Alternative questions
  4. Declarative questions
  5. Exclamatory questions
  6. Rhetorical questions
  7. Question tags
  8. Echo questions/utterances
149
Q

What do you know about yes/no questions?

A
  • the operator is typically placed before the subject and the intonation is rising.
  • with the lexical verb “be” and exceptionally also the verb “have” the whole verb form can go before the subject.
  • auxiliary do in questions and negatives
  • non-assertive expressions (any, anything, ever,…) are often used because the reply is usually open
  • if assertive forms appear, then they have a positive orientation, which means that a positive answer is expected.
  • negative orientation appears when a negative element appears. (Can’t you come in time?). Negation can be also combined with an assertive expression which changes the negative orientation into a positive.
  • some negative yes/no questions also function as exclamatory questions
  • in colloquial register elliptical yes/no questions are quite common.
150
Q

What do you know about wh-questions?

A
  • asks about information according to the “Q-element” at the beginning.
  • “Q-elements” can stand for SOAC.
  • the operator goes before the subject, unless the “Q-element” functions as a subject.
  • the intonation is falling.
  • the preposition connected with the object (the verb) should be used at the end of a question.
  • may include more than one “q-element”, in which case the position is up to the speaker’s/writer’s choice.
151
Q

What do you know about alternative questions?

A
  • similar to yes/no and wh-questions
  • the answers are offered in the question and the addressee should choose one

Would you like tea, or coffee?

-intonation is RISING-FALLING.

  • if u use only rising intonation, than the question changes into yes/no question.
  • if a positive and negative alternatives are offered in the given question, the result can be called polar - alternative question.
152
Q

What do you know about declarative questions?

A
  • differ from statements only in intonation, which is rising
  • assertive in character and therefore we can sometimes use comment clauses with them, which is impossible in other questions
  • only assertive expressions should be used and the expected answer is positive
153
Q

What do you know about exclamatory questions?

A
  • falling intonation
  • formally yes/no questions, but they function as exclamations or rhetorical questions - do not need any answer, an agreement is supposed.
  • positive exclamatory questions express some feelings of the speaker (usually positive) and call for an agreement on the part of the listener, or express strong conviction.
154
Q

What do you know about rhetorical questions?

A
  • very close in meaning to exclamatory questions (function more as exclamations which express our opinion; no answer is needed)
  • if the answer is expected, then positive rhetorical questions call for negative reactions and vice versa.
155
Q

What do you know about question tags?

A
  • question-like structures
  • if agreement is expected, the intonation is falling
  • if the answer is left open, the intonation is rising
  • the form= THE OPERATOR AND THE SUBJECT (expressed by a pronoun)
  • if the rule about positivity or negativity is not followed, then it is in colloquial speech, it’s a source of irony, or it may express the speaker’s conlusion.
156
Q

What do you know about echo questions/utterances?

A

-used for different purposes:

  • listener wants to show that they are listening to a speaker
  • people want to express their surprise, doubt, admiration,…
  • what the speaker said was not understood properly
  • the listener shows that they are not prepared to do what they are asked to (in a reaction to a command)

We climed Mount Everest. Oh, did you?

  • these questions can either repeat a part of the original statement, replace some part by a wh-element or simply react to the statement by a short yes/no question connected with the verb form of the statement.
  • intonation can be raising or falling (dependent on the meaning)
157
Q

What is the common feature of commands?

A

imperative verb form+ no subject

can have a short/long complementation, or it can include just the verb form

158
Q

Do imperative forms of verbs express any grammatical categories?

A

No. They do not express tense, aspect or modality. Very rarely, progressive or passive forms are found.

159
Q

Can imperative sentences have a different role than comands?

A

Yes, they can be suggestions or invitations.

160
Q

When is the subject used in imperatives?

A

When we want to stress the order, the imperative is given to several people at one time or we do not want to adress a specific person.

-the subject is very close to vocative. Vocative can stand at the end of the sentence. It is used with titles.

161
Q

How are used the imperatives for other person that the second singular?

A

imperative form of let followed by a noun or a pronoun in the object form and bare infinitive. These are more of recommendations than actual commands.

162
Q

How do we form negative commands?

A

with the auxiliary do.

163
Q

What do you know about exclamations?

A

begins with a wh-element, continue in the declarative structure.

  • the introductory element can have all the common roles: SOAC
  • frequently used in shorter patterns (wh-element+the noun/adjective phrase)
164
Q

Are fragmentary sentences always considered to be a main clauses? Do they have any other “names”?

A

Yes.

Formulae, minor clause types.

165
Q

What structures belong to the group of non-verbal structures?

A
  1. Greetings
  2. Expletives: Gosh! Oh dear!
  3. Verbless imperatives, exclamations, short (elliptical) questions and answers based on situational context: Why? For no reason.
  4. Warnings, calls for help, apologies
  5. Aphoristic sentences/parallel structures, proverbs: The more, the better.
166
Q

What do you know about verbal structures?

A

-quite a lot of “question-like” sentences, which do not have a finite verb form and do not follow the rules for questions.

Why study on such a beautiful day?

-there are fragments functioning as main clauses having the structure of subordinate ones:

To be in London now!

such structures can stand alone and we can consider them to be fragments where the superordinate (matrix) clause has been omitted.

  • WISHES/OPTATIVES: have a formulaic (fixed in form) structure including verbs in the subjunctive form: Long live the Queen!
  • subjunctive verb forms are normally found only in subordinate clauses, but here they are the only verb form in an independent clause. Sentence structures with may (+partial inversion) are even more formal than those with the subjunctive.

I wish your Christmas were happy.

-there are also sentences/phrases formed according to the canonical WO, which function has changed.

How do you do? - does not function as a question anymore.

167
Q

What do you know about block language?

A
  • included in formulaic sentences
  • condensed information of some kind
  • commonly found in the journalistic style, especially in headlines
  • they do not include words of low information value, such as articles or some pronouns.
168
Q

How do we express subject in subject-less sentences with verbal predicate which are common for the weather condition?

A
  • empty it
  • there
  • nouns/noun phrases - choice usually influenced by the described process
169
Q

How do we express subject in subject-less sentences with verbal predicate which are common for the stating of physical or psychical condition of people?

A
  • a noun/noun phrase/ pronoun.
    He had a sore throat.
    -a noun (NP) with a possessive pronoun which refers to the location or cause of some situation:

His throat was sore.

170
Q

How do we express One-element Czech sentences which include objects or prepositional objects of the verbs in different case form in English?

A
  • genitive
    Přibylo dětí - The number of children has increased.

-accusative
Jde o naši budoucnost. - This is a matter of our future.

-dative
Došlo k několika setkáním. There have been several meetings.

-locative
Nezáleží na vašich požadavcích. - Your requirements make no difference.

171
Q

Reflexive passive verb form in subject-less Czech sentences is quite frequent and the subjects in their English equivalents vary:

A
  • a noun/NP + passive verb form

Her refusal was not reconed with. S jejím odmítnutím se nepočítalo.

  • general subject + active verb form.
    People/We worked the whole week. Pracovalo se celý týden.

-there as the grammatical subject:
There was a long discussion about it. - Mluvilo se o tom dlouze.

-gerunds, infinitives, anticipatory it, personal pronouns - often evaluative structure:

Skiing is wonderful here. Lyžuje se tu nádherně.

172
Q

What do you know about subject-less sentences with verbo-nominal predicate?

A

-connected with similar situations as the verbal ones.
-speak about weather, place, time, about people and their conditions.
-in Czech this consists of linking verb+ complement.
-most common subjects are:
empty it
nouns (+possessive pronouns)
personal pronouns
other pronouns

Je zima. It is cold.

verbo-nominal structures expressing modality or attitude are similar to evaluative structures mentioned.
-usual subjects: anticipatory it, nouns, there.

It is impossible to be there on time. - Je nemožné být tam včas.

SYNTAX2 (1 decks)

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