SYNTACTIC CHANGE Flashcards
What is extension in syntactic change?
Extension refers to surface changes in syntax while the underlying structure remains the same. It involves generalizing a rule to new contexts.
Provide an example of extension.
In Zan languages (Kartvelian family), such as Georgian and Svan, syntactic rules were extended to new contexts without altering the underlying structure
generalising a rule
What is reanalysis in syntactic change?
Reanalysis occurs when the underlying structure of a construction changes, but the surface form remains the same. It depends on the possibility of multiple analyses of a given construction.
Provide an example of reanalysis.
In Spanish, the middle voice se was reanalyzed:
- Original: se vende1 cerveza1 en el patio (“Beer is sold in the courtyard”).
- Reanalyzed: se1 vende1 cerveza en el patio (“Someone sells beer in the courtyard”).
What is grammaticalisation?
Grammaticalisation is the process by which a lexical item acquires a grammatical function, often involving changes in meaning and form (e.g., will “want” > will “future” > ‘ll “future”).
Provide an example of grammaticalisation.
In French, pas (originally meaning “step”) grammaticalized into a negation marker:
- Latin: non vado passum (“I don’t go a step”).
- French: je ne vais pas (“I don’t go”).
What are common historical sources of copulas (e.g., “be”)?
Copulas often derive from:
- Determiners (e.g., “this,” “that”).
- Personal pronouns (e.g., “he,” “it”).
- Verbs of existence or assertion (e.g., “X exists,” “X is the case”).
How does grammaticalisation relate to reanalysis?
Grammaticalisation often involves reanalysis, where a lexical item is reinterpreted as having a grammatical function (e.g., be going to > gonna for future tense).
What is the difference between grammaticalisation and reanalysis?
While grammaticalisation involves a shift from lexical to grammatical status, reanalysis refers to a change in the underlying structure of a construction. Not all reanalysis involves grammaticalisation (e.g., lexicalisation).
Provide an example of grammaticalisation as reanalysis.
The English construction be going to shifted from a literal meaning of movement (I am going to the store) to a future tense marker (I am going to eat).
What is the S-curve in syntactic change?
The S-curve describes the trajectory of syntactic change, where the new variant increases in frequency over time, following a logistic growth pattern (e.g., doubling of odds at equal intervals).
What is the Constant Rate Hypothesis (Kroch 1989)?
The Constant Rate Hypothesis states that the rate of syntactic change (e.g., how fast the new variant replaces the old one) is the same across all contexts.
What is syntactic change as competition?
Syntactic change involves competition between old and new variants, which coexist within a population or even within individual speakers’ minds (e.g., bidialectalism).
Provide an example of syntactic change as competition.
In North American English, the use of have as a lexical verb (She did not have a car) competed with and eventually replaced the older auxiliary form (She had not a car).
What is the role of context in syntactic change?
Some contexts (e.g., sentence types) may lead the change, while others lag behind. The rate of change is consistent across contexts (Constant Rate Hypothesis).
What is the trajectory of syntactic change?
Syntactic change follows an S-curve, where the new variant gradually increases in frequency, with equal intervals between doublings of the odds of the new variant over the old one.
What is the history of the word ‘like’ in English?
The word ‘like’ has evolved over 800 years, shifting from a preposition/comparative marker to a discourse marker (e.g., “It was like, amazing”).
What is the relationship between semantic change and analogy in reanalysis?
Reanalysis often involves semantic change and analogy, where a word or construction is reinterpreted based on its similarity to other forms (e.g., worth shifting from transitive to intransitive use).
Provide an example of semantic change + analogy in reanalysis.
The word ‘worth’ shifted from a transitive meaning (“has the value of”) to an intransitive adjective (“of positive value, worthwhile”).
what is semantic bleaching
a linguistic process that occurs when the meaning of a word is gradually reduced or lost
examples of semantic bleaching
- Great: The word “great” used to refer to size, but now it’s used to describe many things, like a day or a movie
- Awesome: The word “awesome” used to refer to fear or awe, but now it’s used to describe many things, like a movie or a burger
- Literally:The word “literally” is often used to mean something figuratively, even though it literally means “by the letter” or “actually”
- Item: The word “item” used to link items on a list, but now it can refer to any object on a list
- Guy: The word “guy” used to refer to people burned on effigy nights, but now it can refer to any man or any people
