Sustainable Development - Exam

Question 1

Explain how historical perspectives have influenced the environmental crisis

Answer 1

The view of nature. Seen as a two seperate elements where humans have dominion over nature. Nature seen as motherhood or like a clockwork.

Dualism. Seperating the bodies of matter, and the bodies of form (mind and soul) where humans are the only one considered to have a soul. Therefore we can use it to satisfy our needs

Question 2

Explain how the industrial revolution contributed to the environmental crisis

Answer 2

• The Industrial Revolution caused poor air quality in urban England from coal burning and led to environmental issues like species extinction, tropical deforestation, GHG emissions, and ozone depletion.
• Colonialism exploited resources beyond borders, while Progressivism emphasized technology to improve human welfare.
• Economic growth and population increase transformed 70% of grasslands, half of savannas, and forests into croplands, with about ¾ of Earth’s surface farmed.
• Despite these environmental impacts, standards of living, lifespans, and poverty levels have improved.

Question 3

State the sustainable development goals from the UN

(The most important ones)

Answer 3

1. No poverty
2. No hunger
3. Health and welfare
4. Education for all
5. Equality
6. Clean water
7. Sustainable energy for all
8. (11)Sustainable cities
9. (12)Sustainable consumption
10. (13)Fight climate change
11. (14)Fish and ocean resources
12. (15)Ecosystem and biodiversity

Question 4

What is the definition of sustainable development?

According to

Answer 4

“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Question 5

What are human needs?

Answer 5

Basic needs, food, water, sleep etc. But also more than just surviving. Want opportunities, education, relationships.

Often reffered to Manfred Max Neefs classification.
Subsistence, protection, affection, understanding, participation, leisure, creation, identity and freedom.

Question 6

When discussing sustainable development one can talk about ends, means and preconditions. What are these and how are they connected?

Answer 6

The ends of sustainable development is seen as the definition, satisfying human needs both now and in the future.

The means are instrumental actions for acheiving this goals.

For example biodiversity is seen as a means to achieving this goal, taking care of nature and not disrupting ecosystems, causing loss of biodiversity. Since ecosystems are a process that helps assimilation and natural production of services that provide us with functions to satisfy our needs.

A functioning judiciary system, rule of law and legal system is also seen as a means in the social dimension, since it can provide stability and accountability. Enforcing policies and laws to help the environmental challenges.

Economic growth can be seen as a means to reduce poverty for instance, a means to provide economic stability, better resource allocation between the population.

The preconditions are the ecological, economical and the social dimensions.

Question 7

Which are the three main dimensions of Sustainable Development? Give a short description of each dimension.

Answer 7

• Ecological
  Is divided into environmental production capacity, like providing clean water, producing crops, forests, fuel and renewable sources. And assimilative capacity, the ability to handle pollutants and chemical leaks, breaking them down and recycling them into natural cycles.
• Economical
  Economic growth is often seen as a threat to the ecological dimensions. Is divided into two parts, first the finite natural resources, involving managing resources required to meet human needs. Finite natural resources are fuels, metals etc, that are not part of an ecological system. The other part is the human-made capital, meaning goods and services created by us, like buildings and infrastructure. How we invest in human made capital today can affect future generations and their ecological dimension and their social structure.
• Social
  Least discussed. Is about health and social and human rights, allocating resources fairly to meet all human needs. Horizontal relations are about networks, organizations, building trust amongst people, believing that trust and cooperation will contribute to less crime and less corruption. Vertical relations are formal institutions, hierarchical structures, rules, legal systems, helping to manage crisis, make decisions and push incentives.

Question 8

Explain the differences between strong and weak sustainability

Answer 8

Weak sustainability includes those who believe that we can replace natural capital, renewable natural sources, with human made capital, infrastructure, hydro dams, and machines etc instead.

Strong sustainability includes those who don’t advocate for that argument. Believing that natural capital is irreplaceable and must be preserved.

Question 9

Explain precautionary or proactive principle in sustainable development

Answer 9

Basis is that we dont know what the future demand will be regarding human needs.

Precautionary principle means to take safety measures even if there is no scientific evidence for an activity to be harmful for future generations. Limiting new chemicals for example, stopping GMO and nuclear power. Being careful, not doing any potential harm.

Proactive principle, leaning to weak sustainability. strategic planning and initiatives that aim to advance sustainability goals, such as developing renewable energy sources or implementing sustainable agricultural practices.

Question 10

Describe the difference between moral standing and final value.

Answer 10

Human life, happiness and truth may be things that have a final value, while moral standing is what or who we consider have final value. Final value is things that are considered valuable, regardless of its usefulness. Moral standing is what we believe has a final value, and influences ethical decisions.

Question 11

Explain:
Anthropocentrism

Answer 11

Human species have a special status, human needs are the final value. Meaning that nature and animals do not have a moral standing, protecting the environment is only an instrumental value, for human benefit.

Question 12

Explain:
Zoocentrism

Answer 12

Animals are included in the final value, they are considered beings that can feel pain and joy, giving moral weight and therefore a moral standing.

Question 13

Explain:
Biocentrism

Answer 13

From animals to all life, including all life that has a goal of living, thriving and reproducing has the final value. Plants, and all forms of life should be protected and preserved.

Question 14

Explain:
Ecocentrism

Answer 14

Stepping away from the moral standing of individuals to whole groups, moral standing to species and ecosystems in general. The individuals in question are the instrumental value to making it work, ensuring the ecosystems and species remain intact and protected.

Question 15

Explain:
Anthropocentric - Ecocentrism

In the aspect of pairs of opposite

Answer 15

Anthropocentric has human centered viewpoints, focusing on human needs where nature is only instrumental for satisfying human needs. Ecocentric viewpoint values all living beings and their ecosystems, emphasizing the value of nature regardless of its usefulness to humans.

Most political agreements and incentives today are anthropocentric

Question 16

Explain:
High substitutability - Low substitutability

In the aspect of pairs of opposite

Answer 16

To what extent goods and services from nature can be replaced, substituted by human-made capital. High substitutability believes that natural resources can be replaced with synthetic materials or technological solutions. Low substitutability goes hand in hand with the precautionary principle. Replacing natural capital is hard and needs to be protected and kept intact, to also protect its utility for humans.

Question 17

Explain:
Efficiency - Sufficiency

In the aspect of pairs of opposite

Answer 17

Efficiency focuses on optimizing processes to maximize output with minimal strain on the environment and minimal input, through technological advancement, to make resource use more sustainable. For instance reducing the amount of energy input used per product. This focuses on people not having to change their way of living. Sufficiency goes hand in hand with planetary boundaries and means to reduce overall consumption and production, advocating for living based on the planetary boundaries and prioritizing needs over wants.

Question 18

Explain:
Technological fixes - Value change

In the aspect of pairs of opposite

Answer 18

Technology being the solution for environmental challenges, such as carbon capturing, renewable energy systems etc. While value change focuses on changing the lifestyle we live today, changing societal values, behavior, reducing consumption etc. There is a lack of belief that technology will be enough, rather it can create new problems and does not make people happier in itself. Promoting a less materialistic view and changing lifestyle behaviors will have a lower environmental impact. An example is meat consumption where plant based diets are more promoted.

Question 19

Explain:
Individual solutions - Political solutions

In the aspect of pairs of opposite

Answer 19

A question of who is responsible for solving environmental problems. If every individual were to change their behavior, lifestyle choices and live environment friendly lives, we would solve all problems. Others think that this is not enough, we may think that we know what we have to do, but politicians have to dare to make decisions to influence decisions.

Question 20

Explain:
Reformism - Radicalism

In the aspect of pairs of opposite

Answer 20

This perspective is rooted in whether the problems are rooted in the fundamental structure of our society. A reformist believes that only small adjustments and changes are needed, adding measures, supporting new technologies such as solar power, adjusting the amount of fertilizer used in soil etc. While a radicalist sees that society needs to fundamentally change, renewing democracy. Comprehensive and transformative changes to societal, economic, and political systems, advocating for systemic shifts rather than small improvements.

Question 21

What are some examples of ecosystem services for us?

Answer 21

Supporting: Habitat, biodiversity, photosynthesis, soil formation, food
Provisioning: Clean water, fish, wood, pollination
Regulating: Cool temperature, control flooding, purify water, store carbon, clean air
Cultural: Stewardship, aesthetic, recreation, education purpose

Question 22

Explain the divison of “society groups” with regards to what they think of political solutions, individual actions and technology fixes and lifestyle changes.

(for instance “market liberals”, is one)

Answer 22

**Institutionalists **
Believing in technology fix, high political solution. Believing in carbon taxes, subsididies. Technology

Bioenvironmentalists
High political solutions, High lifestyle changes.
Wanting de-growth, reduction, regulations, consumer taxes, nudging

Market liberals
Believing in technical fix and high individual action. Consumer power, technological change

Social greens
High indiviudual solutions and high lifestyle changes. Believing in self-sufficiency homes, sharing economy

Question 23

Explain GDP and how it is calculated.

Answer 23

Gross Domestic Product
= C + G + I + (X-M)

C = Household consumption
G = Government spending
I = Investment (Building,s mines, factories, machinery) From both households and companies
(X-M) = Export - Import

is a measure of the total value of all goods and services produced within a country over a specific time period

Question 24

Give example of objective indicators

In the subject of Quality of life

Answer 24

Objective indicators can be health, life expectancy, family life (divorce rate), material well being (GDP,PPP), political stability, geographical climate, job security (unemployment rate), gender equality (female to male income ratio).

Objective indicators rely on collection of measurable data, like unemployment rate etc.

Question 25

Give examples of subjective indicators

In the subject of Quality of life

Answer 25

Subjective indicators can be a sense of well-being, how happy and content one is with their life, if they have a sense of purpose, feeling positive emotions. And also life satisfaction, how satisfied one is with their jobs, family, life, leisure time.

Subjective indicators rely on people’s perception of their own lifes, which also is based on their own expectations and feelings.

Question 26

How is GDP connected to Quality of life

Answer 26

Higher GDP is often associated with higher living standards, it can also connect to a higher subjective well being. A high GDP indicates a growing economy, indicating job opportunities, higher incomes and better access to goods and services, which are all objective indicators for a high quality of life. They can in turn improve access to health care, longate life expectancy, and provide education. Human needs are things like freedom, safety, bodily health and integrity, emotion etc. Economic growth can provide the functions to provide ourselves with instrumental things that fulfill these human needs, like food, healthcare, and improved education.

GDP does not capture the non-economic aspects of quality of life like social relationships, mental health, how content people are with their lives. A high GDP can also in some cases indicate a high level of stress, high level of pollution and GHG emissions affecting our well being and sense of purpose. Economy is only one part of the broader perspective of quality of life.

Question 27

Explain **terrotorial accounting **of GHG emissions

Answer 27

Territorial accounting is based on emissions that “leave the pipe” within the country and is calculated from fossil fuel usage of industry processes, energy production, transportation and agriculture. Only released within the national borders regardless of where the product is eventually consumed. Used in agreements like the paris agreement

Question 28

Explain consumption-based accounting of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions

Answer 28

Consumption based accounting is based on tracking emissions to the country of final consumption, meaning that it measures emissions from the consumption of goods by the residents, regardless of where it is produced. Excluding the emissions from products that are exported and consumed elsewhere

Question 29

Explain:
Utility maximization

Answer 29

Making a decision to achieve the highest possible benefit, value, level of satisfaction from a choice. This could be allocating resources, optimizing consumption choice, what to invest in. People decide on how they want to spend their money, on food, clothes, entertainment to meet their needs in the best possible way.

Question 30

Explain:
Positional good

Answer 30

A good or service that not only has a value due to its function but also because of its status or social standing. Positional goods have a value due to them being rare, rather than providing a function or utility for us.

Question 31

What is energy access and why is it important for human well-being?

Answer 31

Energy access means having electricity to meet basic needs, including clean cooking, healthcare, and reliable power. Clean cooking methods like electric stoves and biogas reduce indoor air pollution and reliance on biomass, charcoal, and wood, cutting emissions and easing the burden on women and children who often collect fuel. It supports health with safer childbirth, lighting, and refrigeration. It also enables education and societal participation through access to information. Economically, it boosts productivity in agriculture and provides access to water and sanitation systems. Energy access promotes gender equality by freeing time for women and girls and improves quality of life with heating, cooling, and household appliances.

Question 32

Describe three approaches to identifying if an energy strategy is feasible

Answer 32

1. Are relevant actors involved?
2. Are there other cases where barriers have been overcome?
3. Is there a plausible plan or theory of change?

Question 33

Describe how mitigation can be used as strategies to tackle climate change

Answer 33

Mitigation means to reduce or prevent emissions of GHG into the atmosphere, to limit global warming. These strategies can be to transition into renewable energy sources, like solar, wind and hydro power to reduce the use of fossil fuels. It can also be to increase efficiency of transportation, production, etc to lower GHG emissions. It can be to replant, reforest trees to help absorb more carbon dioxide. It can be to implement policies and carbon taxes to perform incentive emission reduction. . Its objective is to slow down the extent of climate change.

High income countries often do mitigating strategies due to their higher responsibility for historically emitting GHG and also have a greater financial capacity to follow through with these strategies.

Question 34

Describe how adaptation can be used as strategies to tackle climate change

Answer 34

Adaptation means making adjustments in the social, economical and ecological dimensions to minimize the negative impacts on the environment. This could be incorporating green spaces in urban planning, respecting nature when building infrastructure, preserving old forests etc. It can have coastal protection and guard against rising sea levels. It’s more about adjusting to the effects of climate change that has already happened

Low income countries can be more vulnerable to climate change, with rising sea levels, extreme weathers, droughts and floods. The priority is on adaptation and having warnings for hurricanes, sea blocks etc. They are not the ones responsible for emitting large quantities of GHG emissions

Question 35

What are the three restrictions for a sustainable use of materials?

Answer 35

Limitation of assimilation/accumulation,
Limitations of land space
Limitations of non-renewable resources

Question 36

State the four socio-ecological principles for sustainability*, and show that you have understood their meaning by discussing their challenges

Answer 36

1. Substances extracted from the lithosphere must not be systematically accumulated into the ecosphere (Due to limited assimilation capacities in nature of substances emitted from nature) Like CO2 emissions from fossil fuels
2. Society-produced substances must not be systematically accumulated into the ecosphere.(Same reason) Like fertilizers that cause acidification and euthropication
3. Physical conditions for production and diversity in the ecosphere must not be systematically deteriorated. (preserving long term productivity and biodiversity in agriculture, forestry, fishing etc). Plantation (food, material, bioenergy, buildings) etc leads to loss of biodiveristy.
4. **The use of resources must be efficiency and just with respect to human needs **(Limited availability of non renewable resources) Example, loss of lithium due to inadequate recycling of lithium ion batteries

Question 37

What are the future challenges for mining of metal? and why

Answer 37

• Reduced concentration in ores,
  More rocks will be needed to be crushed for the same amount of ore.
• increased energy usage demand
  As reserves get lesser and the ores get harder to find, more energy is going to be needed to break large rocks to get the same amount of ore
• increased environmental pressure,
  Of Course if more energy is needed there will be an increase in emissions from energy sources. As well as the land use and degradation of earth, increased erosion and landfill. Increasing the rucksack of materials needed to be extracted that is not used in order to get to the real resource
• increased cost. Economic depletion, when the cost of extraction exceeds the economic value.
  Higher energy requirement, requires more labor, and also environmental incentives cna make it more costly to mine ores in the future

Question 38

What is “dissipative use” of materials?

Answer 38

Dissipative use means the use of materials in a way that leads to their permanent loss, not being able to be recovered, reused or recycled after its use. For example

Particularly important for metals, heavy metals, plastics and chemicals

Question 39

Explain:
Dematerialization

To achieve sustainable material systems

Answer 39

Dematerialization is about using less material to perform the same function, reducing energy use for producing the material, for example energy intensive materials like metals or plastic. Three approaches

1. Reducing the flow. Using the material more efficiently, increasing the quality of the material, miniaturization, multi functionality
2. Slowing down the flow. Making the equipment last longer, protect material in equipment, better maintenance, reparability
3. Closing the flow. Reuse the goods, recycling in consumer goods, cascading or down-cycling

Question 40

Explain:
Transmaterialization

Answer 40

Transmaterialisation is about using different materials that are more sustainable, or non toxic, using less energy when produced. for instance switching plastic straws and all one time materials to paper instead.

Question 41

Explain static lifetime

Answer 41

Static Lifetime=Annual Consumption Rate/Total Reserves

Static lifetime is how long a reserve would last if the current rate of consumption remains constant.

It can say an estimate of how long it will last. help policymakers and industry understand how much resources they have, sending a scarcity signal to explore new reserves.
it cannot estimate changes in consumption behavior, or technology advancement, making it easier to extract resources, or the environmental constraints for limiting the extraction rate.

Question 42

Describe in which three different ways there can be a limited availability of non-renewable resources

Answer 42

Stocks in the lithosphere, availability, reserves
Extraction rate. Mining capacity of minerals
Distribution of resources among countries

Question 43

Explain the five factors in the following equation: I=i x m x u x P.

Answer 43

I = is the total environmental impact
m = the material used per unit of utility. How much material is used for a specific goods or service. It reflects the efficiency of the material used.
i = i = impact/kg (pollution, emissions etc)
u = Utility per capita, the level of consumption that each person derives from a goods or service. It measures lifestyle or welfare.
P = population. Total population that should be considered.

Question 44

In the equation I=i x m x u x P.

What does i and m represent and what are four different strategies to reduce these factors.

Answer 44

Together they represent “technology”

Four strategies:
Dematerialization:
1. Reducing the flow. Using the material more efficiently, increasing the quality of the material, miniaturization, multi functionality

2. Slowing down the flow. Making the equipment last longer, protect material in equipment, better maintenance, reparability
3. Closing the flow. Reuse the goods, recycling in consumer goods, cascading or down-cycling.

Transmaterialization
4. Substituting a material for a less harmful, less scarce and more renewable one.

Question 45

What does the term “Loss and Damage” refer to in the Climate Convention?

Answer 45

Acknowledging the non economic harms caused such as extreme weather, floods, droughts, hurricanes, rising sea levels, glaciers melting etc.
Addressing loss and damage from climate change. It prompted the strategies of mitigation and adaptation efforts.

Question 46

Explain EU ETS

Answer 46

The trading system EU Emission Trading System (ETS) was set up as one of the flexible mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol.

EU ETS is the EU emissions trading system for regulating emissions within the EU. It operates on cap and trade, cap meaning to limit the total emissions allowed. Trade means that one can purchase emission allowances, permitting them to emit one ton of CO2. Companies can reduce their emissions and sell their surplus to those who need it more.

Question 47

What is the fundamental climate goal of the Paris Agreement?

Answer 47

Limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, while pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius

Question 48

What are NDC?

Answer 48

The Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) under the Paris Agreement. (How much emissions a nation is committing to reduce)

NDC differs from conditional and unconditional commitments.

Unconditional being the emissions targets that a country commits to achieve on its own, using its own resources and involves their own national government and their capabilities and own funding. Relying on the commitment of the country, the ambition could be less.

Conditional commitments are these additional targets that a country agrees to take if they receive international support, such as financial or technology transfer. Then international organizations and countries and funding companies, international banksa are involved. It could potentially be more ambitious, having a shared goal

Question 49

What are the impacts of deforestation in the tropics on:

i) Carbon,
ii) Biodiversity, focusing on animals,
iii) The potential to restore the same ecosystem?

Answer 49

Carbon: Deforestation in the tropics reduces carbon sinks because primary forests are key absorbers of carbon dioxide.

Biodiversity (focusing on animals): Tropical forests are rich in biodiversity, providing habitats for countless species. Deforestation leads to habitat destruction, which can cause the decline or extinction of species. It also results in habitat fragmentation, where patches of forest become isolated. This isolation can reduce genetic diversity and disrupt animal migration, breeding patterns, and food availability.

Potential to restore the same ecosystem: Restoring ecosystems in deforested tropical areas is challenging. Reforestation or the growth of secondary forests might not replicate the complexity and ecological functions of primary forests. Degraded soils and altered microclimates can hinder the recovery of native species, and it may take centuries for a reforested area to reach the same biodiversity and ecosystem function as the original primary forest.

Question 50

What is a key driver behind the global expansion of tree plantations, and how does it relate to forest management?

Answer 50

A major driver behind the expansion of tree plantations is the demand for wood products, such as timber for construction, pulp for paper production, and other commercial uses like furniture. Other drivers include the conversion of land for agricultural products like palm oil and soy, particularly in tropical regions.

Question 51

Why have forests as carbon sinks been problematic in climate policy? Provide two reasons.

Answer 51

Leakage and Displacement of Emissions: Efforts to protect or enhance carbon storage in one region can inadvertently cause increased deforestation or emissions elsewhere

Uncertainty in Carbon Sequestration Measurements: The ability of forests to absorb and store carbon varies depending on factors like tree species, soil conditions, and local climate

Question 52

Regional concentration of farm animals can have what type of negative environmental effects?

Answer 52

1. Water Pollution from Manure Runoff: his runoff is rich in nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, which can cause eutrophication
2. Air Pollution and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: High densities of farm animals produce significant amounts of methane and ammonia through digestion and manure. These emissions can have negative effects on human health, contribute to acid rain, and worsen the region’s overall carbon footprint.
3. Soil degradation:
   Overly farming, leading to soil compacting, and constant movement and grazing, limiting pores and limiting water infiltration and the soil becomes more prone to erosion.
4. Leaving waters unprotected. It can also lead to loss of vegetation protection, leaving lands bare and the soil exposed to wind and water erosion, displacing particles and removing top soil nutrients.

Question 53

Describe two farm management methods that increase biodiversity at farm and/or landscape level

Answer 53

Land sparing involves maximizing agricultural yields to spare land for conservation and biodiversity. Increasing productivity per unit area, precision agriculture, improving crop varieties, soil management, farmers can produce more food without using more land. Including modern technologies, high input agriculture methods to enhance yield. Then it becomes easier to set aside natural habitats and protect areas of wildlifes,

Land sharing means integrating biodiversity into the agricultural practices, agro ecological agricultural approaches. Meaning farmers can diversify crops, incorporate polycultures, using organic farming techniques, supporting a wide range of plant and animal species on the farm. Doing hedge rows, flower strips, small foodlands around the fields, to support pollinators but also other organism that help with soil and water management, creating a more resilient ecosystem,

Question 54

Explain agroecological acriculture

Answer 54

It focuses on:

Diversity: Growing various crops and livestock to improve soil health and reduce pests.
Soil Health: Using crop rotation, cover crops, and composting to enhance soil fertility.
Synergies: Creating beneficial interactions between plants, animals, and soil.
Resource Recycling: Reusing organic matter and nutrients on the farm to reduce external inputs.
Local Knowledge: Using traditional practices and involving communities to adapt to local conditions.

Crop diversification, involves growing a variety of crops in the same area, either different crops together or crop rotation, alternating crops in sequential seasons, like wheat with peas or lentils

Organic farming avoids using synthetic fertilizers and pesticides from GMO and rely on natural processes. Promoting biodiversity will help the soil be fertilized, and have the proper structure, natural pest predators, like ladybugs instead of pesticides

Question 55

What are some strategies for protecting biodiversity?

Answer 55

More varied landscapes can support higher level of biodiversity and reduce environmental impact
Grassed waterways can be used as a best management practice to reduce erosion off of fields and within ephemeral stream channels
Filterstrips trapping sediments, chemicals and nutrients
Biological hotspots, silver bullet strategy for conservation planning
No go areas

Question 56

What are the four major crops globally?

Answer 56

Maize, rice, soybeans, and wheat.

Question 57

What does the term food security, food sovereignty refer to?

Answer 57

Security. It describes a condition regarding access to adequate food.

Sovereginity. A political agenda addressing inadequate access to food and land rights.

Question 58

What is crop rotation, and why is it used in sustainable agriculture?

Answer 58

Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of crops sequentially on the same land to control nutrients, pests, and maintain soil fertility.

Question 59

What are the main drivers of deforestation?

Answer 59

Beef production, soy cultivation, timber extraction, and palm oil production.

Question 60

How does agriculture contribute to greenhouse gas emissions?

Answer 60

Through methane production from livestock, carbon dioxide from fossil fuel use, and nitrogen emissions from fertilizers.