sustainability and interdependence Flashcards
1
Q
define food security
A
is the ability of human populations to access food of sufficient quality and quantity
2
Q
define sustainability in food production
A
the ability of food systems to keep production and distribution going continuously without environmental degradation.
3
Q
Sustainable food should be produced, processed and traded in ways that:
A
- contribute to thriving local economies ans sustainable livelihoods
- protect the diversity of the environment for both plants and animals
- avoid damaging natural resources and contributing to climate change
- provide benefits for society
4
Q
all food production is dependent on…
A
photosynthesis
5
Q
define photosynthesis
A
photosynthesis is a chemical proces that occurs in green plants which traps light energy and converts carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight and photosynthetic pigments in green plant
6
Q
what is the summary equation of photosynthesis
A
Carbon dioxide + water → sugar + oxygen
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
7
Q
Describe Starch production and when it occurs
A
- is produced after photosynthesis when large numbers of sugar units join together.
- Starch is produced by all green plants as an energy store.
8
Q
define cultivars
A
plant or group of plants selected for a particular characteristic
9
Q
Factors that control plant growth
A
- competition
- soil nutrients
- pests
- disease
- breeding higher yield cultivars
10
Q
what happens when light shines on a plant leaf
A
some of it is absorbed by special pigments in the leaf
11
Q
where does photosynthesis occur
A
in the chloroplasts
12
Q
what is the most important photosynthetic pigment
A
chlorophyll
13
Q
what does chlorophyll do
A
the chlorophyll molecules trap the energy from light to drive a series of chemical reaction
14
Q
what are the sugars and other compounds produced from photosynthesis used for
A
plant growth and other essential metabolic processes in plants
15
Q
define productivity
A
the rate of generation of biomass in an ecosystem.
16
Q
define trophic levels
A
the position or stage an organism occupies in a food chain.
17
Q
what drives photosynthesis
A
light energy
18
Q
photosynthesis summary
A
This process consists of a series of chemical reactions that require carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). Light energy from the sun drives the reaction. The light energy is trapped by photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll and stored as chemical energy in the carbohydrates produced. Oxygen (O2) is a by-product of photosynthesis and is released into the atmosphere.
19
Q
what percentage of light is absorbed
A
5% taken into the leaf
20
Q
what percentage of light is reflected
A
85% of ligth is bounced back from the leaf surface
21
Q
what percentage of light is transmitted
A
10% of light passes through the leaf
22
Q
what do the photosynthetic pigments do
A
absorb light energy and convert it to chemical energy
23
Q
How do you calculate the Rf value
A
divide the distance moved by the pigment (at the front or leading edge) by the distance moved by the solvent
24
Q
food supply
A
is the provision and distribution of food to a consumer
25
productivity is affected by:
- light intensity
- abiotic factors such as: temp, water availability
- soil type
- efficiency of leaves at capturing available light - leaf shape, angle, area
- crop density
- availability of nutrients
26
in what do chlorophyll a and b best absorb light energy
land plants
27
what does the action spectrum show
the rate of photosynthesis at different wavelengths of light
28
Carotenoids are ...
accessory pigments that pass on absorbed light energy to chlorophyll a
29
what does absorption spectrum graph show
which colours (wavelengths) of light are absorbed by each of the 3 photosynthetic pigments.
30
where do plants absorb most light
blue and red end of the spectrum
31
why is there little photosynthetic activity in the yellow and orange parts of the action spectrum
due to some absorption of these wavelengths of light by the carotenoid pigments
32
what is the 'action' referred to in the action spectrum
photosynthesis
33
what is the first stage of photosynthesis
photolysis
34
where does photolysis take place
the stacked membranes of the chloroplast
35
what is the second stage of photosynthesis
the calvin cycle
36
where does the calvin cycle take place
liquid interior of the chloroplast
37
photosynthesis involves the following processes
- aborbed light energy excites electrons in pigment molecules
- Some excited electrons transfer through electron transport chain, rotating ATP synthase located in the membranes of the chloropast generating a molecule of ATP from ADP + Pi
- other excited electrons break the chemical bonds between hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a molecule of water.
- oxygen evolved, hydrogen released
- oxygen moves through plant cells by diffusion and exits leaf through the stomata
- Hydrogen picked up by co enzyme NADP to form NADPH
- Both NADPH and ATP produced during photolysis are essential to the next stage of photosynthesis
38
What happens first in photolysis
- aborbed light energy excites electrons in pigment molecules
39
what happens after this step in photolysis:
- aborbed light energy excites electrons in pigment molecules
- Some excited electrons transfer through electron transport chain, rotating ATP synthase located in the membranes of the chloropast generating a molecule of ATP from ADP + Pi
40
what happens after this step in photolysis:
- Some excited electrons transfer through electron transport chain, rotating ATP synthase located in the membranes of the chloropast generating a molecule of ATP from ADP + Pi
- other excited electrons break the chemical bonds between hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a molecule of water.
41
what happens after this step in photolysis:
- other excited electrons break the chemical bonds between hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a molecule of water.
- oxygen evolved, hydrogen released
42
what happens after this step in photolysis:
- oxygen evolved, hydrogen released
- oxygen moves through plant cells by diffusion and exits leaf through the stomata
43
what happens after this step in photolysis:
- oxygen moves through plant cells by diffusion and exits leaf through the stomata
- Hydrogen picked up by co enzyme NADP to form NADPH
44
what happens after this step in photolysis:
- Hydrogen picked up by co enzyme NADP to form NADPH
- Both NADPH and ATP produced during photolysis are essential to the next stage of photosynthesis
45
what is the second stage in phtosynthesis
calvin cycle or carbon fixation
46
carbon fixation is:
-light dependant
- occurs in liquid filled interior of chloroplast and is dependant upon NADPH and ATP being produced during photolysis
47
Stages of carbon fixation/Calvin cycle
- carbon dioxide enter leaf through the stomata, moving by diffusion into the chloroplast
- Carbon dioxide combine with RuBP (ribulose biphosphate) catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCo (ribulose biphosphate carboxylase oxygenase).
- G3P has 2 possible fates; some used to regenerate RuBP which is continually being used up and some is used to make
glucose.
- Glucose can then be used in cell respiration, stored as starch grains in the chloroplast or polymerised to make cellulose for new cell walls.
48
what is the first stage of calvin cycle
- carbon dioxide enter leaf through the stomata, moving by diffusion into the chloroplast
49
what happens after this stage of the calvin cycle:
- carbon dioxide enter leaf through the stomata, moving by diffusion into the chloroplast
- Carbon dioxide combine with RuBP (ribulose biphosphate) catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCo (ribulose biphosphate carboxylase oxygenase).
50
what happens after this stage of the calvin cycle:
- Carbon dioxide combine with RuBP (ribulose biphosphate) catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCo (ribulose biphosphate carboxylase oxygenase).
- G3P has 2 possible fates; some used to regenerate RuBP which is continually being used up and some is used to make
glucose.
51
what happens after this stage of the calvin cycle:
- G3P has 2 possible fates; some used to regenerate RuBP which is continually being used up and some is used to make
glucose.
- Glucose can then be used in cell respiration, stored as starch grains in the chloroplast or polymerised to make cellulose for new cell walls.
52
How can productivity be improved
productivity of plants and animals in agriculture in order to provide a sustainable source of food can be improved through genetics.
53
how does genetics improve productivity
by breeding only those plants and animals that have desirable phenotypes within each subsequent generation, an improved breed can be sustained
54
examples of improvements in livestock:
resistance to pests and diseases, higher nutritional values and yields and the ability to thrive in particular environments
55
examples of improvements of crops:
resistance to pests and diseases, higher nutritional values and yields and the ability to thrive in particular environmental conditions
56
field trials have 3 main components that need to be taken into account:
1 selection of treatments - for valid comparisons
2 randomisation of treatments - to eliminate bias
3 number of replicates - to account for the variability within the sample.
57
Describe field trials
Different species of crops, such as grass, cereals, and potatoes, can be grown on identical small areas of land, called plots. Each set of plots are exposed to different treatments, then harvested to estimate the yield. This information allows farmers to select a species that will give the highest yield within local growing conditions.
58
possible desirable genetic characteristics in plants:
insertion of Bt toxin gene results in plants with increased pest resistance, insertion of glyphosphate resistance gene into plants has resulted in herbicide tolerance.
59
possible desirable genetic characteristics in animals:
high conversion of food to body mass, high fertility rate, disease resistance
60
Define inbreeding
inbreeding involves crossing closely related individuals until the population breeds true to the desired phenotype due to the elimination of heterozygotes
61
What can breeding genetically similar plants or animals result in
increase in the frequency of harmful homozygous recessive alleles in the genotype.
62
what causes inbreeding depression
reduced heterozygosity
63
describe hybrid vigour and its results
crossing individuals of different breeds within a species which can result in both genetically and physically stronger F₁, offspring and can produce desirable characteristics
64
in plants, F₁ hybrids priduced by the crossing of two different inbred lines create ...
create a relatively uniform heterozygous crop with increased vigour, yield and growth rate
65
why are F₁ generations usually not bred together
as the F₂ produced shows too much variation
66
in animals, what can be produced by maintaining the two parent breeds
more cross breeds showing the improved characteristic can be produced
67
Describe the process of genetic technology
by identifying the base sequence of an organisms genome using PCR and bioinformatics, desirable genes sequences can be identified, directing the management of breeding programmes.
if desirable gene sequences are located, the organism will be selected and used within future breeding programmes. This ensures the improved characteristics are passed on to subsequent generations of animals and plants.
68
what can recombinant DNA be used for in relation to genetic technology
individual genes can be be inserted into the genomes of crop plants and resulting in new genetically modified plants that will grow with the improved characteristic.
69
genome sequencing
using PCR and bioinformatics, the entire genome of an organism can be analysed. Base sequencing can then be carried out to produce a genome sequence.
70
what does base sequencing allow for
this sequence allows the presence or absence of a desirable allele of a gene to be determined
71
productivity of a crop can be greatly reduced by:
weeds
pests and diseases
72
what type of weeds has a short lifecycle and how long is this cycle
annual weeds, 1 year
73
what type of weeds grow rapidly
annual weeds
74
what type of weeds produce higher numbers of seeds
annual weeds
75
what type of weeds have dormant seeds that remain viable for a long time
annual weeds
76
examples of annual weeds
goose grass, knotweed, shepherds purse
77
what type of weeds has a long life cycle and how long is this cycle
perennial weeds, 2 years
78
what type of weeds are capable of vegetative reproduction
perennial weeds
79
what type of weeds have storage organs which provide food for plant in autumn winter
perennial weeds
80
examples of perennial weeds
couch grass, nettles, buttercup
81
what is a weed
a plant growing in the wrong place
82
5 points for annual weeds:
- short life cycle (1 year)
- rapid growth
- high numbers of seeds produced
- dormant seeds remain viable for long period of time
- Examples: goose grass, knotweed, shepherds purse
83
4 points for perennial weeds:
- long life cycle (2 years)
- capable of vegetative reproduction
- storage organs provide food for plant in autumn/winter
- examples: couch grass, nettles, buttercup
84
weeds within a growing crop can:
- compete with crop plants for nutrients
- contaminate crop harvest time
- release chemicals into soil that inhibit growth of crop plant
- provide habitats for pest species
85
Insects -
cause leaf damage, such as greenfly, blackfly, leatherjackets
86
Nematodes -
round worms in soil attack roots and storage organs
87
Molluscs -
slugs and snails damage leaves
88
Pests:
insects
nematodes
molluscs
89
diseases:
fungi
bacteria
viruses
90
Fungi:
yellow rust on leaves or cereal plants, brown rot on stone fruits, peaches and plums
91
Bacteria:
affect stems, roots and leaves and cause leaf spots, blight and galls
92
viruses:
yellow mosaic of lettuce leaves caused by the lettuce mosaic virus reduces photosynthesis
93
how are plant diseases, caused by fungi, bacteria, or viruses often transmitted
by invertebrates
94
insecticides kill...
kill insect pests
95
molluscicides kill...
kill molluscs, i.e. snails and slugs
96
nematicides kill...
kill the small nematode worms
97
what helps prevent buildup of weeds
cultivation and good management of soil
98
cultural control methods
ploughing, weeding, crop rotation
99
what does ploughing do
destroys perennial root systems in the soil and cleans the field of any previous crop residue that may harbour some pests and plant diseases
100
what does weeding do
growing weeds are removed by cultivation between rows of crop plants
101
what does crop rotation do
planting different crops in each field each year helps to break the life cycle of pest species
102
What is the most effective way of protecting plants/crops with pesticides
application based on disease forecasts is more effective than treating a crop that already has a disease.
103
the action of a pesticide can be ...
selective or systemic
104
pesticides can be designed to ...
be highly specific as to the target pest while degrading quickly and thus avoiding persistence.
105
systemic pesticide work by ...
spreads throughout the animal body or the entire vascular system of a plant.
106
selective pesticide work by ...
attacks only particular target pests
107
Disadvantages of chemical crop protection:
- Toxic to non-target species such as wild animals
- chemical remains in soil and surrounding environment following harvest of crop
- Biomagnification
-repeat exposure to the same chemical can select for resistant strains of pests and diseases.
108
define biomagnification
Chemical enters food chain and accumulates in the body tissue of animals. The concentration of the chemical increases through the trophic levels of a food chain, with the predator containing the highest concentration of chemical in body tissues such as fat. This is called biomagnification
109
Bioaccumulation...
occurs when there is a buildup of a chemical in an organism
110
The use of an integrated pest management scheme reduces:
- the need for chemicals
- the pest population by the deliberate introduction of a natural predator, parasite or pathogen of the pest. For example: a greenfly infestation in a glass house can be biologically controlled by introducing ladybirds that eat greenfly.
111
integrated pest management uses
a combination of chemical, cultural and biological techniques to control the population size of the pest, instead of killing the whole population
112
benefits of ethical animal welfare
the care and welfare of animals farmed for food is not ethically desirable, but has been shown to increase productivity
113
what is the benefit of the following cost:
Financial investment to improve environmental living conditions for animals
animals are less stressed, leading to greater productivity and reproductive rate
114
define stereotypy
repetitive and unusual behaviour patterns directed towards the environment are observed; for example, animal pacing to and fro in a cage
115
free range has long-term benefits including:
- increased growth of animals
- increased success rate of breeding
higher quality end products (meaning they can be sold at a higher price)
- improved image and marketing appealing to wider markets
116
Behavioural indicators of poor welfare
- stereotypy
- misdirected behaviour
- failure in sexual behaviour
- failure in parental behaviour
altered levels of activity
117
define stereotypy
Stereotypy is when an animal displays repetitive movement.
118
how can stereotypy be reduced
Stereotypy can be reduced by enriching the animal's environment through increasing the size of enclosures so that the animal has enough space for natural exercise
119
define misdirected behaviour
Misdirected behaviour is when a normal behaviour is directed at the animal itself, its environment or others.
120
examples of misdirected behaviour
birds over-plucking their feathers, gnawing on solid objects, hyper-aggression, and reduced reproductive success.
121
define Failure in sexual behaviour
Animals may stop demonstrating mating behaviours such as seeking out mating partners. They may also stop being physiologically capable of mating.
122
what 2 terms fall under altered levels of activity
apathy and hysteria
123
define apathy
low levels of activity
124
define hysteria
Very high levels of activity are known as hysteria
125
what is ethology
scientific study of animal behaviour
126
define symbiosis
Symbiosis means living together. Symbiotic relationships are close or intimate relationships between members of two different species.
127
There are two categories of symbiosis:
parasitism
mutualism
128
describe parasitism
one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other species, the host.
129
describe mutualism
is a type of symbiotic interdependent relationship where both partners benefit
130
Parasites need to spread from host to host in order to survive. They can be transmitted in a variety of ways:
Direct contact
Release of resistant stages
Use of a vector
131
direct contact
head and body lice are passed from person to person during physical contact.
132
release of resistant stages
some parasites use resistant larvae and pupae, which can survive adverse environmental conditions until a new host comes in contact with them.
133
use of vector
some parasites use another species to transfer them from one host to another - the Plasmodium parasite (commonly known as malaria) is carried by mosquitoes (the vector) from one human to another.
134
failure in sexual and parental behaviour
reduced reproductive success rates or lack of parental care for offspring
135
some parasite lifecycles involve...
intermediate ( secondary ) hosts to allow them to complete their life cycle
136
explain parasitism involving intermediate hosts
- some involve intermediate/secondary hosts
- mature (Sexual ) stage is usually in primary host
- e.g the primary host of the plasmodium parasite is a female mosquito. It's secondary is a human
137
is it possible for an organism to be a primary host and a vector at the same time
yes
138
Define social hierarchy
is a rank order within a group of aimals consiting of dominant and subordinate members
139
what to dominant members do in social hierarchy
carry out ritualistic (threat) displays
140
what to subordinate members do in social hierarchy
carry out appeasement displays to reduce conflict
141
advantages of social hierarchy
- increase the chances of dominant animals preferable genes being passed on to offspring.
- formation of alliances within hierarchies helps individuals increase their social status within the group
142
What is co-operative hunting
animals hunt together in order to maximise the chance of finding and bringig down prey. In this way, larger prey animals may be hunted, providing more food and energy.
143
Four advantages of co-operative hunting
1. Co-operative hunting may benefit subordinate animals as well as dominant ones, as they may gain more food than by foraging alone
2. Less energy used per individual when hunting in a group
3. Enables larger prey to be caught
4. Increases the chances of hunting success
144
2 types of social defence
-vigilance
- Herd movement
145
describe vigilance behaviour
defence strategy amongst social animals to increase chance of survival. Animals can watch for predators while others forage for food.
146
describe altruism
a behaviour that benefits the survival chance of other members of a social group, at a cost to the individual. The recipient benefits by gaining resources but the role of donor and recipient will be reversed in the future. This is called reciprocal atruism.
147
describe kin selection
this is altruistic behaviour that specifically benefits the survival chances of close relatives or kin within a social group. Ensures an increased chance of survival of shared genes on the recipients offspring or future generation.
148
social insects description
Bees, wasps, ants and termites exist within complex social structures, benefiting the environment by providing 'ecosystem services' such as pollination, decomposition and natural biological control of predator populations.
149
name the 3 distinct social levels in honey bee colonies
queen be, worker bee and drone
150
which members of a honey bee colony contribute reproductively to the colony
queen bee, drone
151
what do the non reproductively contributing memebers not contribute and what do they do for the honey bee colony
most members of the colony are sterile workers who co-operate with close relatives to raise the offsring of the queen with whom they share genes.
152
Behaviour: Parental care
Feature:
Advantage:
- long period of time
- allows learning of complex social behaviours from parents
153
Behaviour: Ritualistic
Feature:
Advantage:
- Reforces a leader's position within a group for example use of vocal sounds and chest beating
- reduces conflict
154
Behaviour: Appeasement (submissive) behaviour
Feature:
Advantage:
- Use of facial expressions, sexual presentation and lower body posture to signal 'standing down'
- reduces conflict and potentially fatal injury
155
Behaviour: Alliances with others
Feature:
Advantage:
- Social bonds develop between individuals
- Increases social status within the group. Alliances are strengthened by grooming.
156
The 3 measurable components of biodiversity are:
genetic diversity
species diversity
ecosystem diversity
157
Measurable component: Genetic diversity
Definition:
Importance:
- comprises the genetic variation represented by the number and frequency of alleles in a population
- indicates total no. of genetic characteristics of a species. Low genetic diversity makes the species vulnerable to changing climatic conditions due to an inability to adapt
158
Measurable component: Species diversity
Definition:
Importance:
- Species Richness = the no. of different species present in an ecosystem.
- Relative abundance = the proportion of
each species in an ecosystem.
- A high number of species results in a stable ecosystem. If one species dominates (high abundance), species diversity is reduced.
159
Measurable component: Ecosystem diversity
Definition:
Importance:
- The no. of distinct ecosystems within a defined area.
- A region with a wide variety of ecosystems will have greater species diversity. The more remote and isolated an ecosystem is, such as an isolated island, the lower its species diversity.
160
If one population of a species dies out ...
then the species may have lost some of its genetic diversity and this may limit its ability to adapt to changing conditions
161
Threats to biodiversity:
1 - exploitation
2 - bottleneck effect
3 - habitat loss
4 - introduced, naturalised and invasive species
162
viable means
capable of surviving under certain environmental conditions
163
bottleneck effect
is a sharp reduction in a population of a species for at least one generation.
164
what can cause the bottleneck effect
the reduction in numbers could be due to overexploitation such as overhunting or due to a natural disaster such as a tsunami or an earthquake that wipes out most of the population.
165
describe bottleneck in full
- may result from overexploitation or natural disaster
- results in change in frequency of alleles in a population and a decrease in genetic variation
- surviving small population may lose genetic diversity necessary to be enable evolutionary responses to environmental change. Can be critical for many species as inbreeding can result in poor reproductive rates.
166
what causes habitat fragmentation
the clearin g of habitats
167
what does habitat loss and fragmentation cause
- increase in competition for limited resources decreases biodiversity as some speies outcompete others for resources
- isolated fragments therefore exhibit lower species diversity
- edges of the habitat fragments erode and edge species may compete for limited resources with those living in the middle of the fragment
168
What is a remedy for habitat fragmentation
habitat corridors
169
describe habitat corridors
- connect fragmented pieces of a habitat
- Can be natural or man made
- allow the movement of animals between fragments increasing food access and choice of mate
- linking larger fragments with isolated fragments may lead to recolonisation after local extinction
170
what are other names for an exotic species
alien or non native species
171
exotic species are
animals introduced from a different geographical location which can potentially have devastating effects
172
naturalised species
exotic species which have become established within wild communities
173
what are invasive species
Invasive species are naturalised species that spread rapidly and eliminate native species therefore reducing species diversity
174
why are invasive species a problem and what causes them to become invasive
Invasive species may well be free of the predators,
parasites, pathogens and competitors that limit their population in their native habitat.
Invasive species may prey on native species, out-compete them for resources or hybridise
with them.
175
Define Introduced species (non-native)
Species that humans have moved intentionally or accidentally to new geographic locations
176
define naturalised species
species that have become established within wild communities
177
define invasive species
These are species that spread rapidly and eliminate native species, thereby reducing species diversity
178
Invasive species are successful because
1. they are free of predators, parasites, competitors and pathogens that limit their population size in their native habitat
2. they prey on native species, outcompete with them for resources or hybridise with them
179
Hybridisation is ...
the process of breeding two different species to produce an organism called a hybrid.
180
explains parental care in primates.
Long periods of parental care to learn complex social behaviours
181
define genetic diversity
variety of alleles within a population
182
define species diversity
measure of the species richness (no. of different types of species in a habitat) and species abundance (no. of individuals within each population
183
define ecosystem diversity
the variety of ecosystems in a particular area (e.g. lake, river, forest, etc.)
