Surgery and anatomy Flashcards
The story of how people think the human body worked and what operations people were able to carry out to help disease
Who was Abulcasis
Muslim surgeon who was considered the ‘father of modern surgery’
wrote a 30 volume medical book Al Tasrif, 1000
He invented 26 new surgical procedures
ThePractice of Surgery
Who was Frugardi?
Wrote The Practise of Surgery in 1180, which was widely used in Europe
Warned against trepanning and attempted ambitious operations on the chest, and in attempting to remove bladder stones
Who was Hugh of Lucca (and his son Theodoric)?
Famous sugeons from Bologna
Wrote a book in 1267 criticising the common view that puss was needed for wounds to heal
Used wine to reduce the chance of infection
Ideas didn’t spread since they went against the Hippocratic method of medicine
Who was pof. Mondino de Luizzi?
1315: he supervised a public disection in Bologna
1316: he wrote Anathomia, which became a standard disection manual for over 200 years
Disections were only done in European Unis for the purpose of proving Galen right, when the body didn’t math his desciption, which it invariably did, they believed there must be something wrong with the body
Who was De Chaulic?
A famous, contemporary surgeon
1363: wrote Great Surgery, which dominated English and French surgical knowledge for 200 years
Contained references to Islamic Scholars like Avicenna
Spent a lot f time in the book criticising Theodoric of Lucca’s idead of preventing infection
Was the main reason those ideas didn’t catch on
quoted Galen 980 times in his book!
Who was John of Arderne?
Famous surgeon who wrote Practica, a surgical mannual, in 1376
Based on Greek and Arab knowledge and his experience in Hundred Year War
Used opium and henbane during his surgeries
Charged a large fee for the operations he developed eg. treating the anal abscesses lots of knights had after spending long times on horseback
1368: he formed The Guild of Surgeons to try to seperate surgeons and lower-class barabers
When was Andreus Versalius born and when did he die?
He was born in 1514
and died 1564
Who was Andreus Vesalius academically?
Belgian medical student who became Prof. of Anatomy at the University of Padua
What book did Vesalius write in 1543, and what also happened to him in this year?
He wrote Fabric of the Human Body in 1543, the same year he ecame a Prof. at the Uni of Padua.
What did Vesalius discover from his numerous dissections?
He found many mistakes in Galen’s writing when compared to his own observations of the body
Why did Vesalius think Galen’s conclusions of anatomy were likely wrong?
They were based on animal dissections
Why were Vesalius’ lectures popular?
He explained Galen’s mistake and corrected it using his own findings.
What made Vesalius’ book quite popular?
His book was well-organised with many precise diagrams
Why was Vesalius’ book heavily criticised and what did this lead to?
His book upturned all previous medical knowledge of the west, and such heavy crititcism forced him to leave his job in Padua
After being forced to leave his job in Padua, what work did Vesalius find?
He became doctor to Emporer Charles V, showing how well respected his work was by some powerful people.
What did Thomas Geminus have to do with Vesalius?
He was an Italian painter who published Compendiosa: a compendium of Vesalius’ illustrations.
What was the effect of Geminus’ publication of Vesalius’ illustrations?
The illustrations were circulated all over Europe in the 1500s and was largely used by illiterate Barber Surgeons, making surgery safer, and using contemporary conclusions.
How much change did Andreus Vesalius have in anatomy?
His work didn’t immediatley lead to medical cures however, by proving Galen wrong, he laid the foundations for future development.
Took a while for his books to be circulated, and even longer to be accep
What are the themes we can link Vesalius to?
Individuals
Communication
Science and Technology
When was Ambroise Pare born and when did he die?
1510-1590
Introduce Pare
He was a french army surgeon for 20 years and served many French kings, becoming one of the most famous surgeons in Europe
What did Pare, working as an army soldier, do in 1537?
He ran out of the hot oil used to treat bullet wounds, thought it would stop any poisoning from the lead bullets.
Pare made a cream to treat the soldier, and found he had a faster, less painful recovery.
How did Pare make his cream?
Used rose oil, eggwhite and turpentine
What did Pare do in 1545?
He challenged the accepted method of using hot oil to treat wounds and wrote a book on his method in 1545
What was bec de corbin?
The Crow’s Beak was a clamp made by Pare to halt bleeding while blood vessels were being tied, since he promoted the use of ligatures, like Galen had, rather than cauterisation
Although ligatures at the time often led to infection
When did Pare write a book, what was it called, and what did it contain?
1575
Works on Surgery
About his method for treating wounds, he had faced with injured soldiers, and he had translated some of Vesalius’ work in his book
Also came up with early prostetics
Where was Pare’s book placed, and what does this show?
A translated version of his book was given to The Library of the Barber Sugeons in 1591, showing this was when his discoveries were widley accepted.
When was Pare’s book published in England?
1634
Who was William Clowes and how did he view Pare?
He was Queen Elizabeth 1’s surgeon and admired Pare as the ‘famous surgeon master’.
what themes could Pare be linked to?
Individuals
War
Chance/luck
Communication
When was William Harvey born and when did he die?
1578-1657
Who was William Harvey?
An English Doctor who studied at Cambridge and Padua and became doctor to King Charles 1 in 1632
When did Wilaim Harvey begin work in St Bartholemew’s Hospital in London?
1609
How and who did Willaim Harvey use to help him counter Galen’s theory?
He used precise experimentation, mathmatical calculations and the previous works of Al Nafiz and Vesalius
What did Galen theorize about blood circulation?
Theorised that the blood was produced and stored in the liver and was the fuel of the body.
When and what did Willaim Harvey say to his students about blood circulation?
In 1616: ‘the blood must move in a constant circle and it’s driver the heart’s power.’
How long did is take for Harvey to publish his theory and why was it so difficult for him to convince others?
Took him 12 years and he still couldn’t explain how or why blood circulated the body, he was trying to disprove Galen without evidence.
No microscopes to help him
Who is Jean Riolan and what did he call Harvey?
He was a French anatomist at the Uni of Paris who called Harvey a quack, slang for a useless/ unqualified doctor
How long did it take for Harvey’s blood circulation theory to be taught at the Uni of Paris?
50 years after he published his theory
1636
Wh was Caspar Hofman and what did he do in relation to Harvey?
1636: in Germany, Pof. Caspar Hofman dismissed Harvey’s calculations of the body’s blood amount as ‘the mere trial of an account’
What did Prof. Marcello Malphigi discover and when?
In 1661 he used the first effective microscopes to discover capillaires that were needed to fully explain, and prove, Harvey’s blood circulation theory
See viens, cappillaries and arteries
How important was Harvey’s theory (once accepted)?
This development, slow on the uptake, is fundemental in treating heart disease and diagnosing diabetes, and work on blood transfusions in 1901
What themes can we link to William Harvey?
Individuals
Science and Technology
When was John Hunter born and when did he die?
1728-93
How was John Hunter trained?
Joined his older brother William in London and showed a talent for disection, occaisonally grave robbing for is brother’s anatomy school.
Studied with two of England’s most famous surgeons: William Cheselden and Percival Potts and became an army surgeon.
When did John Hunter ecome a sugeon at St. George’s hospital?
And when he became part of the Royal College of Surgeons
1768
When was John Hunter appointed surgeon to King George III?
1776
When was John Hunter surgeon general to the army?
1790
What did John Hunter do in 1771?
He published the Natural History of Teeth and kept many of his disected specimins, creating the Hunter collection, including over 300 disected animal specimins, for his teaching.
What did Hunter write in 1786?
On Veneral Disease, which was based on self-experimentation
What did Hunter do in 1785?
He used his theory, which he had tested on animals, to encourage the development of new blood vessels to bypass the damaged area rather than amputating on his patient with an aneurysm.
What did Hunter set up?
A large practice and trained hundreds of other surgeons
Who did Hunter train?
Helped to bring about famous teaching hospitals in the ninteenth century Britain and America and even trained Edward Jenner.
What themes does Hunter link to?
Individuals
Science and Technology
Communication
When was Edward Jenner born and when did he die?
1749-1823
What does inoculation mean?
The action of innculating someone against a disease by introducing ineffective material/ vaccine into the body
Who was Edward Jenner?
Jenner became a country surgeon from 13-19 and heard of stories of milkmaids not catching smallpox because of their resistance to cowpox
What did Jenner do in Gloucestershire in 1796?
Varried out an experiment on an 8 year old boy by infecting him with cowpox and then smallpox 6 weeks after recovery
How many times did Jenner repeat his innoculation experiment?
16 times
What did Jenner publish in 1798?
His findings, from which he concluded that innoculation with a milder disease protected from a similar, more severe disease
Why were Jenner’s conlusions not widely accepted?
- There was no understanding of germs and microbes, so he couldn’t fully explain his findings
- Many profitied from charging smallpox treatments, so didn’t like his prevention
- Jenner wasn’t a fashionable city doctor, so didn’t have respect in the scientific community
What support did Jenner recieve?
- Had powerful supporters, vaccinated royal family and they agreed to give Jenner 10000 pounds for his research in 1802
- 1821: appointed physician extraordinary to King George IV
When did the British gov. make the smallpox vaccine compulsory?
1853
What were some of the objections to inocculation?
- Sick shouldn’t be treated, it was a punishment from God
- Poorest couldn’t afford it
- Sometimes failed, leading to infection and death
Who was Dr. Robert Liston and what does this show about surgery in the 1700s?
famous for his speed in surgery, he could amputate a leg in 40 seconds. Surgeries had to be rushed because they were very painful.
What are the good things about the discovery of eraly anesthetics?
- Help people come foward for simple surgeries beore it fot worse
- Queen Vic. used chloroform in childbirth and described it as ‘delightful beyond measure’, making it more mainstream
Worked well for the birth of her eighth child, she and the baby were both fine
What are the cons of early anesthetics?
- Religion taught pain was a sinner’s punishment from God and to stop it would go against God and some surgeons thought it a soldier’s duty to bare the pain for his country
- Cases like Hannah Greener, who died during a toenail removal, due to overdose
- Did not deal with the issue of hygiene and infection
What were the three early anesthetics?
Nitrous Oxide
Ether
Chloroform
Who discovered the use of nitous oxide as an anesthetic and when?
1795 Bristol physician Thomas Beddoes and his assistant Humphry Davy
How was Nitous Oxide’s anesthetic possibilities discoverd?
Was used as a fairground novelty, the use of making people laugh could be used to ease pain in surgery, even if it didn’t knock them out.
What themes can we link Edward Jenner to?
Individuals
Chance/luck
Science and Tech
Government
Who discovered ,and when, the anesthetic possibilities of Ether?
16th Oct 1846
Robert Lister was the first in the UK, while American William Clerk used in it in dental operations in Jan 1842, and Willaim Marton in a public leg amputation in Boston
What were the drawbacks of using Ether as an anesthetic?
Difficult to inhale and highly flammable, which was aproblem as many people had surgeries at home, next to the fire, in the 1800s.
Who discoeverd the anesthetic purposes of Chloroform?
1847 James Simpson found out the powers of chloroform after he adn his team inhaled it, spending hours knocked out during their dinner party
But this was what killed Hannah Greener
When was Joseph Lister born and when did he die?
1827-1912
Who was Joseph Lister?
He was a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1852.
Moved to Glasgow in 1860 to become Prof. of Surgery
August 1865
What did Joseph Lister do and why?
- He and chemist Thomas Anderson and read Pasteur’s Germ Theory
- August 1865: he decided to use carbonic acid to kill microbes stop infection of a boy’s fracture, left infection-free 6 weeks later
When did Joseph Lister publish his findings?
March 1867: published his results and published Pasteur’s Germ Theory and explained his techniques
What happened to Lister in August 1867?
He lectured and met with controversy as surgeons debated to leave wounds open to air or bandage
What did Lister do in 1867?
publishes his results of use of Carbonic bandages, which had first been used in 1865
What was some of the opposition for antiseptic surgery?
- Doctors didn’t accept Pasteur’s Germ Theory
- Antiseptic chemicals had been widely used in the 1860s, and what Lister was proposing was not revelutionary
- Lister claimed his methods were superior but others felt existing methods were adaquete
- His methods were difficult/ unpleasant to use since it made surgeons’ hands dry up, crack and irritated the lungs
What is antiseptic surgery?
spray carbolic acid to coat the surgeons’ hands, the wound and the operating tools
What did antiseptic surgery lead to?
a 30% drop in death rate
What themes can we link Joseph Lister to?
Communication
Individuals
