Surgery Flashcards
Discuss adhesions
-Incidence
-Causes (2)
-Pathophysiology
-Consequences (4)
- Incidence - 60-90% of patients who undergo gynae surgery
- Causes
-Previous surgery - 75%
-Infection / inflammation - 25% - Pathophysiology
-Adhesions are caused by aberrant healing process
-Following disruption of peritoneum fibrin is deposited with 3 hrs
-New mesothelioma cells aggregate and re-epithelialise peritonium in 5-7 dyas
-If fibrin deposits don’t undergo satisfactory fibrinolysis then infiltration with fibroblasts occur and structures remain. - Consequences
-Bowel obstruction
-Infertility
-Pelvic pain
-Increased operative difficulty in subsequent procedures
Discuss methods to avoid adhesions
-Surgical technique (3 categories)
-Adhesion barriers
-Solid bariers (3)
-Liquid barriers (2)
-Pharmacological methods (3)
- Surgical techniques
Minimise trauma to tissue
-Meticulous haemostasis
-Minimise devascularisation
-Careful dissection to tissue planes
Avoid forgien bodies or irritants
-avoid latex gloves
-Use fine non-reactive sutures
Route of surgery
-Laparoscopy is less invasive - Solid adhesion barriers
-Interceed - oxidised regenerated cellulose
-Seprafilm
-ePTFE - nonabsorbable, sutured into place
(Poor evidence for all solid barriers in reducing adhesions) - Liquid adhesion barriers
-Adept - Icodextrin 4%. High quality evidence reduces adhesions. No difference in clinical outcomes (fertility, pain, bowel obstruction)
-Spraygel - polyethylene glycol - Pharmacological methods
-No impact on adhesion formation
Discuss bladder injuries
-Incidence
-When most likely to occur (2)
-Risk factors for bladder injury (9)
-How to prevent bladder injury (3)
- Incidence
-0.3% CS
-0.5 - 25% of gynaecological operations
-50% unrecognised at time of procedure - Time most likely to occur
Port placement
-Place second port under direct visualisation
-Avoid Veres entry supra-pubically
-Deflate bladder
Dissection of bladder of cervix, usually in the midline - - Risk factors
-Inexperienced surgeon
-Type of surgery - increased in LAVH
-Complexity of surgery
-Distorted anatomy (endometriosis, large pelvic mass)
-Previous surgery, CS
-Neoplasm
-Obesity
-Previous radiotherapy
-Extensive bladder dissection - Avoiding bladder injury
-Empty bladder
-Meticulous dissection of bladder
-Maintain high index of suspicion
Discuss recognising and investigating for bladder injury
-Prevention principles (3)
-Regnoition intraoperatively (5)
-Recognition post-operatively (6)
-Investigations (6)
- Principles of prevention
-Know anatomy
-Safe electrocautery
-Meticulous technique - Recognition intra-operatively
-Obvious cystotomy, urine leakage, CO2 or haematuria in catheter bag, intraoperative cystoscopy undertaken. - Recognition post-operatively
-Failing to recover as expected, oligouria, suprapubic pain, haematuria, PV urine leakage, chemical peritonitis.
-Usually noted within 48hrs of injury but can be upto 10-14 days with thermal injury (uroperitoneum / fistula) - Investigations
-Increased serum creatinine - increased absorption by peritonum
-CT urogram to see uroperitonieum or injury
-Retrograde cystography - confirms diagnosis
-Cystoscopy - helps to determine management approach
-Methylene blue into bladder to look for PV leakage (fistula)
-MRI to look for fistula
Discuss the management of bladder injury
1. Principles of repair (3)
2. Repairing injury in dome
3. Repairing injury at trigone / ureter
- Principles of repair
Consider radiologist, urologist assistance
Consider size of injury
- <2mm consider expectant management
- 2mm - 1cm consider expectant or surgical management
- >1cm repair
Consider location of injury
-If dome can repair
-If Trigone or ureter get help from urologist - Repairing injury at bladder dome
-Repair in 2 layers with continuous absorbable 2.0/3.0 vicryl suture
-Mucosa
- muscularis + Serosal layer
-In posterior bladder wall injuries interpose omentum to minimise fistulation
-Check integrity of repair with methylene blue to check water tight
-Under take cystoscope at time of repair
-Keep bladder decompressed - IDC for 14/7
-Perform cystogram prior to removal. If leakage keep IDC for further week then repeat
-Cover with antibiotics - Repairing trigone
-Assess patency of ureter
-Consider if obstruction to ureter by suture and consider removing
-Call urologist for help
Discuss pre-operative evaulation and management for intra-operative blood loss
-Management of antiplatelets (2)
-Management of anticoagulants - things to consider (1)
-Warfarin (low and high thrombotic risk)
-Thrombin inhibitors and FActor Xa inhibitors (low and high bleeding risk)
- Antiplatelets
Aspirin - can usually be continued. Stop 7 days pre-op
Clopidogrel - can usually be continued. Stop 7 days pre-op - Anticoagulants
-Need to consider clotting vs bleeding risk
-High clotting risk AF HEaret valves, recent VTE
-High bleeding risk any major op >45mins - Warfarin
Low thrombotic risk - stop 4-5D pre-op. Operate if INR <=1.5
High thrombotic risk - stop 4-5D pre-op. Once INR <=2.0 cover with LMWH then operate 24hrs post stopping LMWH.
Restart warfarin at maintenance dose night of surgery - Thrombin inhibitors (Dabiagatran / Rivaroxiban)
-Low bleeding risk - Stop 2 days pre-op. Restart 24hrs post op
-High bleeding risk - Stop 3 days pre-op. Restart 48hrs post op
Discuss managment of intra-operative haemorrhage
-General principles (7)
-Surgical haemostasis (7)
-Topical haemostasis
- types (2)
-Risks (3)
-Benefits (4)
1.General principles
-Avoid hypothermia
-Avoid excess venous pressure at surgical site
-Consider deliberate hypotension
-Involve anaesthetics
-Intravascular resus with IVF
-TXA
-Blood products if Hb <80 or clinically appropriate
2. Surgical haemostasis
-Pressure
-Monopolar diathermy if vessle <2mm
-Advance bipolar if vessle <7mm
-Vessle ligation if vessle >7mm
-Proximal vessle ligation
-Consider conversion to open for access
-Consider vascular input
3. Topical heamostatic agents
Active
- contains fibrin or thrombin to trigger coagulation cascade - Floseal
-Removed by fibrinolysis
Mechanical
-Contains collagen, cellulose or gelatin as framework for platelet activation - surgicel
-Removed by absorption
Risks: excess material may cause granulation, may complicate radiological and clinical diagnosis of abscess/granuloma/tumours, may increase adhesion formation
Benefits: Improved haemostasis in venous ooze, absorped in 2-5weeks, has bacteriostatic effect, pilable
Discuss management of bowel injury
-Grade of injury (5)
-Management depending on grade
-Antibiotics
-Post operative considerations (1)
-Suture type
- Grade of injury and management
-Grade 1 - partial thickness without devascularisation - repair in 1-2 layers
-Grade II - <50% of circumference - debride edges and repair with 2 layers longitudinally
-Grade III - >50% of circumference - debride edges and repair in 2 layers longitudinally
-Grade IV - Transection - resection and anastomosis
-Grade V - devascularised - resection and anastamosis - Management of serosal damage - oversew with continuous 3.0 PDS to bury raw edges
- Pre-operative antibiotics usually sufficient. If not given then broad specturm
- Post op diet - no restrictions
- Suture type
3-0 PDS
Discuss the complications of hysterectomy
1. Serious complications and incidence (8)
2. Frequent complications (4)
- Serious complications overall 4:100
-Requiring blood transfusion 23/1000
-Major bleeding 5:1000
-Return to OT - 7:1000
-Urological injury - 7:1000
-VTE 4:1000
-Pelvic abscess/infection 2:1000
-Bowel injury - 0.4/1000
-Death 1:4000 (0.25:1000) - Mostly VTE or MI - Frequent complications
-Urinary sx - Increased frequency, UTI
-Minor bleeding/bruising
-Wound concerns (dehiscence, delayed healing, herniation)
-keloid formation
Describe vaginal hysterectomy
-Indications
-Contra-indications
-Complication rate
-Advantages (6)
-Disadvantages (2)
- Indication
-Benign indications only - HMB, Prolapse - Contra-indications
-Adnexal pathology, malignancy
-Adhesions, enlarged uterus, long vagina, narrow pubic arch, - Complication rate - 23%
- Advantages:
-Least post-OP pain
-Quicker recovery
-Shorter hosptial stay
-Fewer post op infections
-Can perform concurrent continence surgery.
-Supported as route of choice by ACOG and Cochrane review - Disadvantages
-Reduced ability to manage pelvic pathology
-Salpingectomy not routinely performed
Describe the steps of a vaginal hysterectomy (12)
- Grasp cervix with valsallum / Alice
- Infiltrate with LA to fornicies
- Circumfrential incision around cervix
- Dissect vaginal epithelium off fascia to level of fornicies
- Divid cervicovesicular ligaments and reflect bladder anteriorly
- Enter peritoneum posteriorly in POD and use sims to retract rectum
- Clamp, cut and tie cardinal ligaments
- Clamp, cut and tie uterine vessles
- Clamp and ligate broad ligament, round ligament, ovarian ligament and fallopian tube (in one or two bites)
- Remove uterus and cervix
- Incorperate uterosacral ligaments into closure of posterior peritonuem and lateral edges angles of vaginal vault
- Close vaginal vault using continuous suture
Describe abdominal hysterectomy
-Indications (4)
-Contra-indications
-Complication rate
-Advantages (4)
-Disadvantages (3)
- Indications
-Uterus >12/40, Hx of PID/Endo?multiple CS, Malignancy, Minimal uterine decent, narrow pubic arch, long vagina - Contra-indications - Nil
- Complication rate 17%
- Advantages
-Visualisation and tactile examination of pelvic / abdominal organs
-Concurrent management of pelvic pathology
-Easy clearence of bowel with wet sponges
-Easier adhesiolysis - Disadvantages
-Most Post OP pain
-Longest hosptial stay
-Reduced QoL and sexual function
Describe the steps of abdominal hysterectomy (14)
- Entry as per laparotomy
- Gain access with bowel packing and retractor
- Straight tissue forceps over round ligament and fallopian tube
- Clamp round ligament with curved tissue forceps at mid point and incise
- Bluntly create hole in broad ligament with finger
- Further clamp either to tube and ovarian ligament (medial to ovary) or to IP ligament if BSO
- Incise anterior leaf of broiad ligament down to uterovesicular peritoneum and reflect bladder down
- Place Kocher at R angles to uterus at midpoint and incise medially then ligate pedicle sercuring uterine artery
- Clamp and ligate paracervical tissue
- Incise anterior and posterior fornix
- Clamp and ligate uterosacral ligaments
- Perform colpotomy
- Close vaginal vault in two layers incorperating uterosacral ligaments into angles
- Close abdomen
Discuss laparoscopic hysterectomy
-Indications
-Contra-indications
-Complication rate
-Advantages (6)
-Disadvantages (3)
- Indications - minimal uterine decent, long narrow vagina
- Contra-indications - medical contra-indication to laparoscopy, likelihood of severe adhesions
- Complication rate 19%
- Advantages
-Can evaluate other pelvic pathology
-Can perform other adnexal procedures
-Shorter hospital stay
-Less post-OP pain
-Less wound infection
-Better QoL
-Early return to activities - Disadvantages
-Longest operating time
-Most urinary tract injuries
-More severe bleeding
Describe the steps for Laparoscopic hysterectomy (9)
- Insert uterine manipulator - grasp cervix, sound uterus, dilate cerix, insert rumi slide and sercure cup to cervix
- Enter abdomen laproscopically
- Perform salpingectomy
- Ligate gonadal pedicle IP or ovarian ligament depending on ovarian conservation or not
- Divide round ligament and incise anterior leaf of broad ligament towards the UV fold to reflect bladder
- Skeletonise and divide uterine vessles
- Perform colpotomy using counter traction with uterine manipulator to advance cuff superior to ureters. Remove uterus.
- Close vault in two layers incorperating uterosacral ligaments
- Check haemostasis
Discuss total vs subtotal hysterectomy
-disadvantages of subtotal hysterectomy (2)
-Difference in outcomes (7)
-Preference
- Disadvantges
-Ongoing cervical screening required
-Risk of cyclical bleeding - Difference in outcomes
-NO difference for urinary/bowel/sexual function/surgical recovery/readmission rate/transfusion rate/POP/urinary incontinence - Preference is total hysterectomy always. May not be possible due to mechanical or technical difficulties
Discuss management of adnexa at hysterectomy for benign pathology
-Benefits of oopherectomy (2)
-Risks of oopherectomy (6)
-Benefits of salpingectomy (1)
-Risk of salpingectomy (1)
- Benefits of oopherectomy - reduced risk of breast cancer if <45, reduced risk of ovarian cancer
- Risks of oopherectomy - Increased all cause mortality if <65yr, Increased CHD, osteoporosis, hip fractures, depression and anxiety, cognitive dysfunction, more severe vasomotor sx, sexual dysfuction if premenopausal
- Benefits of salpingectomy - Reduces risk of high grade serous ovarian/fallopian/peritoneal cancer
- Risks of salpinectomy - none
Discuss the RANZCOG recommendations and evidence for management of adnexa at hysterectomy
-RANZCOG recommendations (3)
-Evidence from Ovarian conservation study
-Evidence from Nurses health study
- RANZCOG recommendations
-If women are <50 and considering oopherectomy counsel regarding: increased mortality at older age with oopherectomy and reduction in ovarian cancer and deaths with their removal.
-In women >50 considering oopherectomy counsel regarding reduction in ovarian cancer and death from ovarian cancer but no change in survival benefit.
-Discuss the benefits of BS with hysterectomy including reduced ovarian cancer dx (no studies report reduced risk of death). No increased risk of complications - Evidence from ovarian conservation study
-BSO at 50-54 8.5% excess mortality at 80yrs
-BSO at 55-59 3.9% excess mortality at 80yrs
-No age shows clear benefit of oopherectomy for survival
-BSO associated with increased all cause mortality, CHD, lung cancer
-BSO associated with reduced breast cancer and ovarian cancer - Evidence Nurses study
-BSO associated with decreased breast and ovarian cancer
-BSO associated with increased risk of CHD and all cause mortality
-BSO not associated with decreased survival if after 55yrs
Discuss surgical site infections
-Definition
-Risk factors (7)
- Definition: infection related to an operative procedure near or at the surgical incision within 30 days or 90 days if prosthetic material implanted
- Risk factors
-Smoking
-Older age
-Obesity
-Diabetes
-Immunosupression
-Malnutrition
-Open surgery > laparoscopic
-Emergency > elective
Discuss prevention measures for surgical site infection
-Pre-operative measures for the patient (4)
-Measures at the theatre level (4)
-Measures for patient prep (4)
- Pre-operative measures for patient
-Optimise nutrition
-Use minimal route for operation
-Encourage smoking cessation even if just on morning of operation
-Bowel prep - only if possibility of bowel injury - Measures at OT level
-Limit number of people in OT can through OT
-Have filtration systems
-Have OT cleans between cases and deep terminal clean
-Have sterile instruments and storage of instruments - Patient preparation
-Clip rather than shave at surgical site
-Skin preparation - chlorhex better in horizontal stripes
-Vaginal prep - chlorhex better than Iodine (bacteriocidal not static)
-Shower prep with chlorhex - decreases skin flora but dosen’t impact SSI
-MRSA declonisation not required unless ortho op
Discuss prophylactic antibiotic use in surgical site infections
-Type
-TIming
-Efficacy
-Repeat dosing during surgery
- Type of antibiotic
-Should be active against skin flora.
-Cefazolin most widely studied - Timing - should be 30-60 mins before knife to skin for cefazolin to have max penetration at skin
- Efficacy - Reduces SSI by 50%
- Consider repeat dosing if:
-Operation >4hrs
-Blood loss >1.5L
-Don’t forget to consider dose adjustment with renal impairment
Discuss surgical techniques to decrease risk of surgical site infection
-On entrance (2)
-Intraoperatively (4)
-Wound closure (6)
-Specific to CS (4)
- On entrance
-No difference in SSI between scalpel adn electrosurgery but aim to reduce tissue necrosis to decrease SSI
-Avoid repeated strokes at incision - Intra-operatively
-Avoid tissue drying out
-Ensure haemostasis
-Avoid exessive tension/traction on tissues
-Wound retractiors (Alexis) reduce SSI by keeping wound edges protected and moist - Wound closure
-Ensure haemostasis
-Close wounds without tension
-Close campers fascia if >2cm of fate
-Don’t leave dead tissue
-Aim for monofilament
-Staples less likely to obscure wound drainage but uincreased risk of wound separation - For CS
-Avoid MROP
-No optimal method for closing sheath
-Close fat layer
-No evidence fresh blade or change in gloves or irrigation of wound improves SSI rates
Describe the following:
-Current
-Resistance
-Voltage
-Power
-Frequency
-Joules law of thermodynamics
-DC current
-AC current
- Current: the rate of flow of electorons through a conductor (amps)
- Resistance: The opposition of the flow of current (Ohms)
- Voltage: The force required to move a unit of charge from one point to another (Volts)
- Power: Energy produced Watts
- Frequency: Number of cycles of positive and negative alternation pf current per second (hertz)
- Joules law of thermo dynamics: Heat created is proportional to the current, the tissue resistance and the duration of time of application (Heat = current squared x reistance x time)
- DC current: elctrons flow in same direction
- AC current flow of electrons change direction periodically
Discuss the effect of heat on tissues at different temperatures
-45 degrees
-70 degrees
-90 degrees
-100 degrees
-200 degrees
- 45 degrees causes protien denaturation and tisssue damage which may be irreversible
- 70 degrees: causes boiling of intracellular fluid, cell shrinkage and linkage of adjacent cells - coagulation
- 90 degrees: Desiccation of tissue
- 100 degrees: vaporisation of bubbling of tissue
- 200 degrees: Char formation or carbonisation of tissue
Describe coagulation in terms of:
-frequency and voltage
-Temperature
-Impact to tissue
-Sites of use
-Thermal spread
- Uses low frequency interupted wave form adn high voltage 5000V
- Temperature is slow to rise in tissue due to intermittent heat delivery
- Results in cell dehydration and shrinkage, protien denaturation, welding of adjacent cells
- Use for highly vascular areas for haemostasis adn high resistance tissue - Fat
- Has increased thermal spread compared to cut
Describe cutting in terms of:
-Frequency and voltage
-Temperature
-Impact to tissue
-Site of use
-Thermal spread
- Uses high frequency continous wave form and low voltage 1000V
- Has radip temperature ris
- Causes rapid heating of intracellular fluid and cell rupture
- Use when close to important structures
- Has narrow thermal spread cf coagulation
Discuss the following in terms of:
temperature, mode to achieve, contact with tissue, effect on tissue
-Dessication
-Vaporisation
-Fulguration
- Dessication
-90 degrees
-Achieved on cut or coag
-Direct contact with tissue
-Dehydration and shrinkage of cells and protien denturation and welding of tissue - Vaporisation
-100 degrees
-Cutting more
-Non-contact
-Rapid brief increase in temperature converting intracellular fluid to stream rupturing cells - Fulguration
-200degrees
-Coag mode
-Non-contact
-Breakdown on tissue into anatomical components with charring over large area
Discuss monopolar
-Circuit
-Advantages (7)
-Disadvantages (7)
Monopolar is a single active electrode in contact with the tissue.
The circuit is complete by passage of curent through the path of least resistance to a base plate
Advantages:
-Reaily available
-Cheap
-Range of configurations
-Versatile
-Range of variables
-Wide range of tissue effects
-Popular
Disadvantages:
Risk of capcitive coupling/current leakage
-Improper application
-Lateral spread
-Smoke plume
-Poor vessle sealing - 1mm max
-Delayed presentation of thermal injury
-Electrical current passes through patient
What are the considerations for applying a base plate for monopolar - (8)
- Full contact with electrode surface
- Site free of soiling or surface residue
- Avoid boney protrusions
- Avoid scar tissue
- Avoid implants
- Shave heavy hair growth
- Position close to operating table
- Be accessible under drapes
Discuss bipolar
-Circuit
-Advantages (6)
-Disadvantges (4)
- Bipolar current flows from one electrode to another and not through the body of the patient
- Advanatages
-Almost zero chance of alternative pathway burns
-Low power requirement
-Readily available
-Inexpensive
-Good vessles sealing 5-7mm
-Can do dessication and coagulation - Disadvantages
-Limited dissection capability
-Risk of lateral thermal spread
-Need for additional technology for transection
-No audio feedback on completion so increase slateral spread
Discuss thermal spread in terms of electrosurgical injury
-defintion
-Extend of spread with different modalities
- Thermal spread is damage to tissues in the area surrounding the intended tissue
- Extent of spread by modality
-In traditional bipolar ranges 2-22mm
-Harmonic scalpel - 0.3mm
-Ligasure 4.5mm
-Adavanced bipolar systmes have much less thermal spread
Discuss direct coupling
-Defintion
-Causes of direct coupling (3)
- Defintion: direct electrical burns
- Causes
-Accidental activation of the electrode while touching a nontarget tissue
-Acidental activation of the electrode while touching another metal instrument in the abdomen that is touching a non-target tissue
-Insulation failure due to micro leaks allowing passage of coagulation wave form