summer homework - Rhetorical terms specifically related to logic and argumentation

Question 1

argument

Answer 1

An argument is a piece of reasoning with one or more premises and a conclusion. Every essay is an argument that begins with the conclusion (the thesis) and then sets up the premises. An argument (or the thesis to an argument) is also sometimes called a claim, a position, or a stance.

Question 2

Premises

Answer 2

Statements offered as reasons to support a conclusion are premises.

Question 3

Conclusion

Answer 3

The end result of the argument – the main point being made. In an argument, one expects that the conclusion will be supported with reasons or premises. Moreover, these premises will be true and will, in fact, lead to the conclusion.

Question 4

Aristotle’s appeals

Answer 4

The goal of argumentative writing is to persuade an audience that one’s ideas are valid, or more valid than someone else’s. The Greek philosopher Aristotle divided all means of persuasion (appeals) into three categories - ethos, pathos, and logos.

Question 5

Ethos (credibility)

Answer 5

Being convinced by the credibility of the author. We tend to believe people whom we respect. In an appeal to ethos, a writer tries to convince the audience that he or she is someone worth listening to, in other words, an authority on the subject, as well as someone who is likeable and worthy of respect. (Also see the fallacy of appeal to authority.) An argument that relies too heavily on ethos, without any
corroborating logos can become a fallacy.

Question 6

Pathos

Answer 6

Emotional - means persuading by appealing to the reader’s emotions. (Also see the fallacy of appeal to emotion). An argument that relies too much on emotion, without any corroborating logos, can become a fallacy.

Question 7

Logos

Answer 7

Logical - persuading by the use of reasoning, using true premises and valid arguments. This is generally considered the strongest form of persuasion.

Question 8

Concession

Answer 8

Accepting at least part or all of an opposing viewpoint. Often used to make one’s own argument stronger by demonstrating that one is willing to accept what is obviously true and reasonable, even if it is presented by the opposition. Sometimes also called multiple perspectives because the author is accepting more than one position as true. Sometimes a concession is immediately followed by a rebuttal of the concession.

Question 9

Conditional Statement

Answer 9

A conditional statement is an if-then statement and consists of two parts, an antecedent and a consequent. Conditional statements are often used as premises in an argument.

Question 10

Contradiction

Answer 10

A contradiction occurs when one asserts two mutually exclusive propositions. Since a claim and its contradictory cannot both be true, one of them must be false.

Question 11

Counterexample

Answer 11

A counterexample is an example that runs counter to (opposes) a generalization, thus falsifying it.

Question 12

Deductive argument

Answer 12

An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion. In a deductive argument, the premises are intended to provide support for the conclusion that is so strong that, if the premises are true, it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false. (also see inductive argument)

Question 13

Fallacy

Answer 13

A fallacy is an attractive but unreliable piece of reasoning. Writers do not want to make obvious fallacies in their reasoning, but they are often used unintentionally, or when the writer thinks they can get away with faulty logic. Common examples of fallacies include the following:

Question 14

Ad hominem

Answer 14

Latin for “against the man”. Personally attacking your opponents instead of their arguments. It is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, feeling rather than intellect.

Question 15

Appeal to authority

Answer 15

The claim that because somebody famous supports an idea, the idea must be right. This fallacy is often used in advertising.

Question 16

Appeal to the bandwagon

Answer 16

The claim, as evidence for an idea, that many people believe it, or used to believe it, or do it. In the 1800’s there was a widespread belief that bloodletting cured sickness. All of these people were not just wrong, but horribly wrong, because in fact, it made people sicker. Clearly, the popularity of an idea is no guarantee that it’s right.

Question 17

Appeal to emotion

Answer 17

An attempt to replace a logical argument with an appeal to the audience’s emotions. Common emotional appeals are an appeal to sympathy, an appeal to revenge, and an appeal to patriotism – basically any emotion can be used as an appeal.

Question 18

Bad analogy

Answer 18

Claiming that two situations are highly similar, when they aren’t

Question 19

Cliche thinking

Answer 19

Using as evidence a well-known saying, as if it is proven, or as if it has no exceptions.

Question 20

False cause

Answer 20

Assuming that because two things happened, the first one caused the second one. (Sequence is not causation.)

Question 21

Hasty generalization

Answer 21

A generalization based on too little or unrepresentative data.

Question 22

Non-Sequitur

Answer 22

A conclusion that does not follow from its premises; an invalid argument.

Question 23

Slippery slope

Answer 23

The assumption that once started, a situation will continue to its most extreme possible outcome.

Question 24

Inductive argument

Answer 24

An argument in which it is thought that the premises provide reasons supporting the probable truth of the conclusion. In an inductive argument, the premises are intended only to be so strong that, if they are true, then it is unlikely that the conclusion is false. (also see deductive argument)

Question 25

Unstated premises

Answer 25

Not every argument is fully expressed. Sometimes premises or even conclusions are left unexpressed. If one argues that Rover is smart because all dogs are smart, he is leaving unstated that Rover is a dog. Here the unstated premise is no problem; indeed it would probably be obvious in context. But sometimes unstated premises are problematic, particularly if two parties in a discussion are making differing assumptions.

Question 26

Sound Argument

Answer 26

A deductive argument is said to be sound if it meets two conditions: First, that the line of reasoning from the premises to the conclusion is valid. Second, that the premises are true.

Question 27

Valid Argument

Answer 27

An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises.
The following argument is valid, because it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion to nevertheless be false. We do not know if the argument is sound, because we do not know if the premises are true or not.
Premise: Either Elizabeth owns a Honda or she owns a Saturn.
Premise: Elizabeth does not own a Honda.
Premise: Therefore, Elizabeth owns a Saturn.
The following argument is also valid, because the conclusion does follow logically from the premises. However, the argument is not sound, because one of its premises is clearly untrue.
Premise: All flightless birds are man-eaters.
Premise: The penguin is a flightless bird.
Conclusion: Therefore, the penguin is a man-eater.
The following argument is not valid, even though its premises are true:
Premise: All baseballs are round.
Premise: All basketballs are round.
Premise: No football is round.
Premise: The earth is round.
Conclusion: The earth is either a baseball or a basketball, but not a football.