Summer 2023 Review Flashcards
Where do action potentials form?
Axon Initial Segment
Where in the cell is NA+ high?
Outside the cell
What is the resting membrane potential?
-70 mV
Where in the cell is K+ high?
Inside the cell
If something positive enters the cell and it becomes more positive it is called _______
Depolarization
What is the resting membrane potential?
-70 mV
What is a synapse?
A place where two nerve cells come in very close proximity to one another and send signals
What is the resting membrane potential?
-70 mV
The _______ is a portion of the basal ganglia that receives dopamine signals from the substantia nigra.
striatum
What is the index of the world’s leading scholarly journals in the sciences, social sciences, arts, and humanities called?
Web of Science
What are the two preprint servers called?
BioRxiv and MedRxiv
What are two components of the SNARE complex?
synaptobrevin and syntaxin
What receptor does muscarine (in poison mushrooms) activate?
muscarinic acetylcholine receptor
What is the name of the disorder causing a person to physically act out their dreams?
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
What is the name of the substance that builds up in the guts of sleep deprived animals?
ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species)
In what receptor were mutations found in narcoleptic dogs?
Orexin/Hypocretin Receptors
What is the relationship of the three hunger hormones (Leptin, Ghrelin, Insulin)?
Insulin and Leptin = direct relationship (because when leptin is high you are full so you just ate which means your blood sugar is high, which means you need insulin to break down blood glucose)
Leptin and Ghrelin = indirect relationship (because when leptin is high you are full since you just ate which means you aren’t hungry which is what high Ghrelin makes you feel)
Insulin and Ghrelin = indirect relationship (because of the combination of the previous two relationships)
What is the definition of sleep? (make sure to remember the important keyword(s) we talked about)
A NORMAL and REVERSIBLE suspension of consciousness
What heroin do?
Heroin binds to the opiate receptor (for pain, stress, and emotional control), which then blocks the inhibitory neurotransmitters, so DOPAMINE is released.
What ecstasy do?
Ecstasy goes through and messes up serotonin transporter, so the transporter reverses and releases SEROTONIN.
What is motivation?
something that makes behavior more likely to occur or increases persistence
What marijuana do?
Marijuana (THC) binds to cannabinoid receptor (for removing short memory, causing slow movement), which then blocks the inhibitory neurotransmitters, so DOPAMINE is released.
What are two places in the brain that have major sources of dopamine?
Central Tegmental Area (VTA)
Substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc)
_______ and _______ are the two major sources of dopamine in the brain
Ventral tegmental area (VTA), substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc)
What part of the brain is primarily responsible for motion control and motor learning?
Basal ganglia
Electrical synapse is also called _______
Gap junction
Where does the striatum receive dopamine signals from?
substantia nigra
What drug is a precursor to dopamine?
L-dopa
What methamphetamine do?
Met goes through the dopamine transporters and enters vesicles that contain dopamine. Since the spots in the vesicles are taken, there will be excessive DOPAMINE after reuptake, which then is released again.
The flowing of potassium ions out of the neuron causes _______
Hyperpolarization
What alcohol do?
Alcohol binds to GABA receptor which gives inhibition boost. At the same time alcohol binds to glutamate receptor to block the release of GLUTAMATE. Therefore, there is less excitation, affecting memory formation and impulse control.
What cocaine do?
Cocaine binds to dopamine transporter, blocking dopamine during reuptake, so DOPAMINE binds to its receptors, affecting reward system and voluntary movements.
What does it mean that circadian rhythms are heavily conserved?
Circadian rhythms are evolutionary and heavily adapted, which means it’s not necessarily affected by light
What do you use to track Ca activity in the brain?
GCaMP
What LSD do?
LSD binds to SEROTONIN receptors, causing both inhibitory and excitatory effects, so it provides a combined magical feeling. This affects locus coeruleus, which control sensory wakefulness.
What increases in the gut as one becomes more deprived of sleep?
ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species)
Why are some certain drugs so addictive?
They simulate the same affect dopamine has on someone’s brain
Drugs of abuse increase extracellular dopamine levels. What does this affect?
It desensitizes dopamine receptors and results in tolerance and less dopamine receptors in the brain
What is the gap in between two neurons where the two neurons communicate?
The synapse
Which hormones are related to hunger and what do they do?
Ghrelin: Increases hunger/need for food
Insulin: is responsible for glucose regulation
Leptin: Increases the feeling of fullness/signals to the brain the consumer has eaten enough
what are the POMC, CGRP and AgRP for?
POMC for satiety & AgRP feel hunger
CGRP neurons control meal size
What does REM stand for?
Rapid eye movements
What is forward genetics?
Start with phenotype and try to determine genetic basis
How do you detect sleep cycles in humans?
using the EEG
What happens when nicotine binds to the receptors?
increase signaling to NAc and PFc
Leptin Vs. Ghrelin
Leptin: tells your body you are FULL
Ghrelin: tells your body you are HUNGRY
Importance of Sleep
To reset the body, encode memories, brain health, gut/digestion, energy conservation
What part of the brain regulates hunger and sleep?
The hypothalamus
What gene is mutated in Narcolepsy?
Orexin or the hypocretin receptor gene
What are the two types of ways to activate neurons?
Chemogenetics and optogenetics
How long are circadian rhythms?
23 hours
What is the basal ganglia?
A portion of the brain that is responsible for motor control and motor thinking
Circadian rhythms: sleeping
Your cells know what time of day it is, the body doesn’t need light cues in order to know when to get up/be tired
Circadian rhythms: sleeping
Your cells know what time of day it is, the body doesn’t need light cues in order to know when to get up/be tired
Circuit Level Observing
Electron microscopy to determine “connectome”, Visualize neurons, Tracing
Optogenetics
Being able to put in ion channels that can open and close with light
Cocaine acts on this neurotransmitter system
Dopamine
Marijuana acts mimics this class of endogenous signaling molecules
Endocannabinoid system
Methamphetamine is taken into cells through this transmembrane protein
Dopamine transporter
Psychedelics are thought to act on this neurotransmitter system
serotonin system
A journalist would create what kind of source?
Secondary Source
What are circadian rhythms?
Natural physiological and behavioural oscillations that repeat every 24 hours
What is an electroencephalogram?
This electrophysiology technique can be used to determine if a person is sleeping
What is Orexin?
A neuropeptide that regulates arousal, wakefulness, and appetite
Cocaine acts on this neurotransmitter system.
Dopamine
The name for the difference in electrical potential between the inside and outside of the cell.
Membrane potential
This is a government website that can be used to find biomedical research.
PubMed
This technique uses light gated channels to manipulate neural activity.
Optogenetics
What is Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)?
A molecule that builds up in the guts of sleep deprived animals to cause death
Natural Physiological and behavioral oscillations that repeat every 24 hours.
Circadian Rhythms
how can you meausre neuron activity?
Calcium levels
what is GFP?
green flourecent protien
these two websites are where you can find preprints
biorxiv and medrxiv
as action potential happens the cell becomes_____
depolarized
a package of materials that can be transported through the cell, that fuses and shoves out contents
vesicle
what triggers the SNARE complex?
calcium
What is narcolepsy
Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder of the orexin that can cause people to have sleep attacks, cataplexy, drowsiness, hallucinations, sleep paralysis, and disturbed sleep.
What is parkinson’s disease?
The progressive loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra
What is CRISPR /Cas9?
A tool for genetic editing.
When do Voltage Gated Sodium Channels (VGNaC) open?
When the membrane potential crosses the threshold of -55 mV.
When do Voltage gated Potassium Channels (VGKC) open?
What is an electroencephalogram?
an electrophysiology technique to determine if a person is sleeping
what helps transport neurotransmitters?
synaptic vesicles
what is the name of the neurotransmitter system that caffeine acts on to promote wakefulness?
adenosine
What do Glia cells do within the cell
Glial cells are types of cells that do not directly interact with synaptic interactions and electrical signaling from neurons. They have supportive functions to help maintain synaptic transmissions between neurons.
What are electrical gradients?
The difference in charge across the membrane.
What are chemical gradients?
The difference in solute concentration across the membrane
where does the action potential usually peak?
40 mv
What is a chemical synapse?
Action potentials cause waves of depolarization to travel through a neuron. The depolarization causes the opening of voltage-gated calcium channels.
what does the sodium potassium pump do?
pumps sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell
What is an electrical synapse?
Also called a gap junction, an electrical synapse is the assembly of 6 proteins, or connexins, which come together to form a channel with a pore that ions can use to flow across an electrical synapse.
When are neurons from ascending arousal system more active
More active during wakefulness
what do sleep active Gaba-ergic neurons in POA inhibit
They inhibit centers for arousal in the hypothalamus and brainstem
what are affects of sleep deprivation on the brain
affects include memory problems, a decrease in cognitive abilities, lack of control on moods and hallucination.
what are the pros of energy conservation
they are “grounded in evolution”
What are the cons of energy conservation
During REM we use a lot of energy up
What is the site of synaptic transmission on a neuron?
The axon terminal
Which parts of a phospholipid are hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic?
A phospholipid has a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails.
Is the basal concentration of calcium in a neuron low or high?
Low
What is an ionotropic receptor?
An ion channel
What is a metabotropic receptor?
Receptors that activate a chain of
intracellular secondary messengers, usually GPCRs.
Which part of the cell receives input from a presynaptic cell?
The Dendrites
What is the difference in charges between the inside and outside of a cell known as?
Membrane Potential
What is the signal for the SNARE complex to release neurotransmitters?
Calcium
What part of the brain controls motor control and learning?
Basal Ganglia
hat is it called when vSNARes and tSNARes come together to bring a vesicle towards the cell membrane?
Docked Vesicle
What transporter is opened when insulin binds to IR and a “cascade reaction” occurs? (this transporter allows glucose into the cell)
GATE4 transporter
what kinds of molecules can easily travel across the lipid bilayer?
small, uncharged polar molecules
the gray matter of the anterior part of the frontal lobe that is highly developed in humans and plays a role in the regulation of complex cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning
Prefrontal cortex
What is excess glucose stored as in the liver?
Glycogen
first hand accounts from people that have direct connection to the topic
Primary source
Desensitization to _________underlies the devaluation of repeated behaviors
dopamine
an inclination or natural tendency to behave in a particular way
Propensity
processes reward signals
Nucleus Accumbens (NAc)
there are two types of proteins that mediate facilitated diffusion. what are they?
channel proteins and carrier proteins
what does uniporter mean with respect to active transport?
transports a substrate across the cell membrane against the gradient with active transport.
what does symporter mean with respect to active transport?
transports two different molecules in the same direction
what does antiporter mean with respect to active transport?
transports two different molecules in the opposite direction
What is insulin resistance?
Abnormal blood glucose levels that don’t allow the body to respond to insulin.
What neuron does leptin activate?
POMC (provides satiated feeling)
What neuron does ghrelin activate?
AgRP (provides hunger feeling)
neuron
brain cell
glia
braincell
neurotransmitter
dopamine serotonbin
GCaMP
way to view neuron axctivity through calcium screening
selectively permeable membrane
receptor that allows some particles across the membrane but not otherss.
