Summary of lectures Flashcards
How do the research strategies quantitative and qualitative differ?
These strategies differ in terms of their:
- general orientation to social research
- epistemological foundations
- ontological basis
What is deductivism?
Deductivism:
theory –> data
explicit hypothesis to be confirmed or rejected
quantitative research
What is inductivism?
Inductivism:
data –> theory
generalizable inferences from observations
qualitative research /grounded theory
What could be Epistemological considerations?
- What is (or should be) considered acceptable knowledge?
- Can the social world be studied ‘scientifically’?
- Is it appropriate to apply the methods of the natural sciences to social science research?
- Positivist and interpretivist epistemologies
What could be ontological considerations?
- Social ontology: the nature of social entities
- What kind of objects exist in the social world?
- Do social entities exist independently of our perceptions of them?
- Is social reality external to social actors or constructed by them?
- Objectivists vs. social constructionists
Name the characteristics of quantitative research
Measurement of social variables
Common research designs: surveys and experiments
Numerical and statistical data
Deductive theory testing
Positivist epistemology
Objectivist view of reality as external to social actors
Name the characteristics of qualitative research
Understanding the subjective meanings held by actors (interpretivist epistemology)
Common methods: interviews, ethnography
Data are words, texts and stories
Inductive approach: theory emerges from data
Social constructionist ontology
Distinction between quantitative and qualitative research remains useful. But how can this division be critiqued?
- The connections between epistemological / ontological commitments and research methods are not deterministic
- Research methods are more ‘free-floating’ than has been presumed
- Practicality of a method needs consideration
- The prevalence of mixed methods (which has always been dominant in case study research) blurs the ideology
Criteria in social research
Reliability – are measures consistent?
Replication/replicability – is study repeatable?
Validity – are conclusions well-founded?
What does reliability in social research mean?
-Stability
is the measure stable over time?
e.g. test–retest method
-Internal reliability
are the indicators consistent?
split-half method, Cronbach’s alpha
-Inter-observer consistency
is the measure consistent between observers?
What does replicability in social research mean?
Minimizing contamination from researcher biases or values
Explicit description of procedures
Control of conditions of study
Ability to replicate in differing contexts
Name the four different types of validity
Measurement (or construct) validity – does the measure reflect the concept?
Internal validity – are causal relations between variables real?
External validity – can results be generalized beyond the research setting?
Ecological validity – are findings applicable to everyday life (everyday natural social settings)?
Name the conditions for internal validity
There is a causal relation between X and Y when X is the cause of Y. Three necessary conditions:
- There is a statistical significant associations between X and Y
- No ambiguity with respect to causal direction (X -> Y and NOT Y -> X)
- There are no other variables (Z) that explain the statistical association between X and Y.
What is the difference between a Research Design and a Research Method?
A Research Design provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data. Choice of research design reflects decisions about priorities given to the dimensions of the research process.
A Research Method is simply a technique for collecting data. Choice of research method reflects decisions about the type of instruments or techniques to be used.
Types of research design
- Experimental
- Cross-sectional
- Longitudinal
- Case study
- Comparative
Name the elements of an Experimental research design
- Random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups,
- Pre-testing of both groups,
- Independent variable manipulated; all other variables held constant,
- Post-testing of both groups,
- Computation and analysis of group differences
- Rarely used in social research - either impractical or unethical (exception: social psychology)
Types of experimental research
Laboratory experiment
Field experiment
- in ‘real life’ settings
- e.g. Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968) – classroom
What is the purpose of a control group?
- Spurters (the experimental group) - eliminating the effects if rival explanations of a causal finding
Quasi experiment
Internal validity threats of experimental research design
- Other (non-experimental) events may have caused the changes observed (‘history’)
- Subjects may become sensitized to ‘testing’
- People change over time in any event (‘maturation’)
- Non-random ‘selection’ could explain differences
- ‘Ambiguity about the direction of causal influence’ because sometimes the temporal sequence is unclear
External validity threats
- Interaction of selection and treatment
- Interaction of setting and treatment
- Interaction of history and treatment
- Interaction effects of pretesting
- Reactive effects of experimental arrangements
Characteristics of a cross-sectional design
“A cross-sectional design entails:
-the collection of data on more than one case (usually quite a lot more than one) and at a single point in time in order to collect a body of quantitative or quantifiable data in connection with two or more variables (usually many more than two), which are then examined to detect patterns of association.”
a cross-sectional research design:
What can you say for example about the:
-reliability
- validity
- Replicability
Reliability and Measurement Validity are not connected to the design, as such.
- Replicability will be high as long as the researcher specifies all the procedures
- Internal Validity is weak, because co-relations are much more likely to be found than causality
- External Validity will be strong if the sample is truly random
- Ecological Validity may be compromised by the instruments used
What is a longitudinal research design?
-Survey of the same sample on more than one occasion
Typically used to map change in social research
-In a panel study or a cohort study
What are the weak spots of a longitudinal research design?
-Attrition, because people die, or move home, or withdraw from the study.
-Knowing when is the right time for the next wave of data collection.
The first round may have been badly thought out, which leaves the later rounds in a bit of a mess.
-A panel conditioning effect may creep in to the research
Describe a case study as research design
- detailed and intensive analysis of one case
e. g. a single community, school, family, person, event, or organization - often involves qualitative research
- case is the focus of location/setting just provides a background
- types of case: critical, unique, exemplifying, revelatory, longitudinal
- e.g. Holdaway (1982, 1983): ethnography of occupational culture in a particular police force
Weak spots of the case study as research design
The biggest issue concerns external validity, because it is impossible to generalize the findings.
Many case-writers argue, though, that the point of the research is to examine particulars rather than attempt to generalize.
Cases may be extended longitudinally or through a comparative design.
