Study Unit 6 Flashcards
Physical development in Middle childhood
General physical development
- rapid growth of arms and legs in comparison to the torso
- overall more gradual growth rate than previously
- grow about 6cm yearly and gain 2kg
- by the end of middle childhood, the brain has reached its adult size and weight
- important development takes place in the frontal lobes, and children can master increasingly difficult cognitive tasks
- breathing becomes deeper and slower as the respiratory system starts to function more economically
- by the end of middle childhood, all milk teeth are replaced by permanent teeth. Malocclusion is common at this age, and may be caused by thumb sucking past the age of 5
- myopia (near-sightedness) is common
- inadequate sleep leads to obesity
Motor skills
- increase in strength, coordination, and muscular control over the body
- balance and elegance of physical movement also improves
- their strength, speed and stamina isn’t as good as that of adults, but their coordination, timing, and concentration is just as good
- boys tend to develop gross motor skills before girls do, while girls develop fine motor skills sooner
- this development aids cognitive development (writing, reading, painting) as well as social development (playing in a sports team)
Sexuality
- Freud believed this is a period of sexual latency (Latent stage)
- however, recent studies indicate that sexual development continues uninterruptedly
- by the end of middle childhood, children have established gender identity, gender constancy and gender consistency (a man remains a man even if he wears a dress)
- they also become aware of sexual issues such as the sexuality of others
- since they have not reached puberty, sexual-related play, such as masturbation, serves the same function as other types of play; curiosity and exploration. It is also a method of self-soothing
- they also have a basic concept of procreation
Cognitive development during middle childhood
- children now enter the concrete operational stage (7-11 years of age)
- start using mental operations: basic math skills and spatial skills, like reading a map
- reversibility: the understanding that physical actions and mental operations may be reversed
- understand hierarchies of classes (Mila= scottish terrier= dog= animal)
- can perform conservation task, where water is poured from a shorter, rounder glass into a taller one
- horizontal decalage, they struggle to transfer knowledge of one type of conservation to another, even if it is the same in principle
- Egocentrism disappears, and instead they decentre, realizing that many problems involve various aspects and perspectives
- this type of thought is limited to the concrete, the here and the now. Abstract and hypothetical thinking is beyond their ability
Evaluation of Piaget’s theory
- cross-cultural studies support a progression from the rigid, illogical thinking of younger children, to the flexible, logical thinking of older children
- little attention was paid to culture-based experience
- research shows that children in South Africa and other countries in Africa achieve the Piagetian tasks in the same sequence that his subjects did
Language Development during Middle childhood
- characterized by the refinement of language skills
- better pronunciation, and ability to construct more complex sentences
- understand the multiple meanings of words (literal and figurative)
- understand passive voice
- at age 9 they start to understand sarcasm and irony
- increased understanding and use of facial expressions and gestures during conversations
- improved ability to adapt language to the social context
- the multiple meanings of words are mastered
Bilingualism and multilingualism
- differed opinions to whether it is better to learn a second language simultaneously or successively
- no serious language development problems with simultaneous learning
- the one doesn’t dominate the other, each develops in their own right
- with successive learning, the ‘weaker’ language is initially parasitical to the other, applying the same syntactical patterns and phonetic structures
- preschool years is the best age to learn a new language successively
- multilingual children show increased analytical reasoning, verbal and non-verbal creativity, concept formation, and cognitive flexibility
- strengthens the higher-level executive control components of the cognitive system - increased language proficiency
Measuring a child’s school readiness
physical level
-motor skills (holding a pen) and can use the bathroom without help
Cognitive level
-Knowing colours, and a school-entry understanding of numbers and letter.
-Basic understanding of time, and ability to converse in their mother language
Emotional level
-must understand their own emotions and the emotions of others and respond empathetically
- ability to appropriately express and control emotions
- take accountability
- cope with the separation from their caregivers
Social level
-they should be able to integrate with new groups easily through interaction
- behave in a socially acceptable manner
-follow class rules
- IMPORTANT: a child’s attitude towards diversity
Normative level
- they must be able to accept authority (parents, educators)
- ability to reflect and display good manners and respect
- adhere to classroom procedures, having a sense of responsibility to accept and complete tasks in time
- being able to sit still and focus on tasks at hand
- follow rules and instructions
Cognition and Academic Achievement during Middle childhood: The community and school
Community involvement
- when schools and communities work together to support learning, learners tend to get higher grades, attend school more regularly and stay in school
- refers to volunteerism, funding etc
School contributions
Classroom atmosphere
- factors such as the characteristics of the other learners, the teacher, and also the physical arrangement of the classroom
- a positive classroom climate is associated with higher learner motivation and achievement
School climate and educational policy
- focus should be on learning, and not performance
- positive feedback such as recognition of effort is needed
- children need to be provided with contextually relevant education
- teachers need to be sensitive to learners’ cultural norms and values
- receiving education in a language different to your home language can lead to a negative attitude towards school
School infrastructure
- schools within the rural areas in South Africa have very poor infrastructure
- hazardous and poorly maintained buildings
- inadequate water supply and sanitation facilities
- no electricity
School violence
- violence may involve physical acts and non-physical acts
- this may lead to physical harm, low self-esteem, anxiety, depression, and poor academic achievement
Development of self-concept and self-esteem
- self-concept refers to the set of attributes, abilities, attitudes and values that individuals use to define who they are
- children can now include external and internal characteristics when describing themselves
- they begin to:
1. describe themselves in terms of psychological traits
2. compare their own characteristics with those of peers
3. speculate about the causes of their own strengths and weaknesses
4. see themselves and situations from other’s perspectives - the reason for this is children make social-comparisons at this age
- more likely to think about what they can do in comparison with others
- improvement of perspective-taking skills (ability to infer what other people are thinking)
- as children ‘read’ the messages they receive from other people, their ideal self develops (who they would like to be) which they then use to evaluate their real self (who they really are)
- minimum discrepancy between the ideal self and the real self indicates a healthy self-concept. The inverse is also true
self-esteem is an aspect of the self-concept, that involves individuals’ judgement about their own worth and the feelings associated with those judgements
1. Academic competence
2. Social competence
3. Physical/Athletic competence
4. Physical appearance
self-efficacy is related to self-esteem and refers to people’s beliefs about their capabilities to perform well, and the confidence they have in being able to control events in a given situation
- children who believe they are competent (even if they are not) develop feelings of positive self-efficacy and behave effectively
Influences on self-esteem, self-concept and self-efficacy during middle childhood, and how to improve these traits
- genetics lay the foundation for the three self-traits; parents with a low self-esteem will also have a child with low self-esteem
- children who display more competence achieve more successes, and subsequently they have a higher level of these self-traits
- the home environment predicts self-esteem. Children with high self-esteem tend to be securely attached to their parents
- social feedback, such as comments, is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement
- mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety go hand in hand with a person’s self-traits
How to enhance these traits
- identify areas of competence
- Help children achieve: teach them skills that will help them achieve more. This will result in increases self-esteem and self-efficacy, which will fuel future achievements
- Help children cope: encourage children to face their problems rather than avoiding them. Facing them and learning to cope produces favorable self-evaluative thoughts
- provide emotional support
- help your children feel that they are needed and play an important role in the family
- make sure your children’s goals are within reach
- teach your child that mistakes are acceptable and learning experiences
- praise your child’s approach and efforts, not only the result
Emotional development
Improved emotional understanding
- ability to understand complex emotions such as pride and shame
- realise that people don’t always show their true emotions
- can experience multiple emotions at the same time
Increased emotional self-regulation
- have developed self-soothing strategies
- they think before they act, and know to suppress or conceal negative emotions in certain circumstances
- emotional self-efficacy, a feeling that they are in control of their emotions
Enhanced self-conscious emotions
- pride, jealousy, embarrassment and empathy
- influenced by parental practices and cultural factors
Emotional intelligence
- the ability to identify and manage one’s own emotions, as well as the emotions of others
1. Emotional self-awareness: ability to understand your own feelings
2. Emotional management: to control one’s emotions and express them suitably
3. Social awareness: empathy, and the ability to understand the emotions of others
4. Relationship management: ability to develop and maintain good relationships
Positive discipline
Discipline
- refers to methods of teaching children character, self-control, moral values, and appropriate behavior
- not the same as punishment
Parental behaviors
- parents need to provide leadership and be in charge
- parents are powerful models
- they should maintain their self-control and not act out of a place of emotions and impulses
- need to know that a child’s behavior is often a reflection of the parent’s behavior
- if focuses on what parents can do differently to induce their children to behave
Establishing rules and setting limits
- there should be rules that are not too rigid, easy to follow and consistently reinforced
- if parents have too many rules, there are many, there are many areas of behaviour they must monitor, making them liable to slip up and forget their own rules
- when misbehavior occurs, the parent should explain the rules an provide good reasons for compliance
- by using inductive techniques such as discussion and explanation, rather than power assertion such as spanking and shouting, parents lay a foundation of love and care and are generally respected by their children, because children feel they are being respected. It also enhances moral behaviour
Offering choices
- this empowers children and gives them some control over their lives
- choices must be fair, reasonable and logically related to the behavior
- reduces resentment towards the parent and provides the child with an opportunity to take responsibility
- help to establish limits and boundaries
Consistency and follow-through
- clearly communicate what the rules are, and what the punishment will be for disobeying
- consistently follow through with these actions for the most effective results
- if they don’t, children learn very quickly not to believe in their parent’s authority
- the use of idle threats is associated with high levels of disobedience
- fluctuations in discipline, or if some behaviours are punished one day and overlooked the next
- consistent enforcement of rules is related to high levels of voluntary compliance
- protecting children from experiencing the consequences of their behaviour will interfere with the development of self-discipline
Positive feedback
- children believe what people tell them and act the way people expect them to act
- children tend to repeat behaviour if they receive reinforcement and rewards such as praise and encouragement
- helps to reduce misbehaviour
- rewarding good behaviour also helps parents keep a positive focus in their discipline
Punishment that teaches
- the most effective punishments are used early in the sequence of misbehavior, with the lowest level of emotion possible and the mildest level of punishment possible (taking a toy away)
- children learn through observation, so they will learn the parents’ ways of punishment (shouting back)
- how parents use any disciplinary tactic is more important than which tactic they use
- allow them the opportunity to make amends, and learn that they can make things better if they behaved unacceptably
Social development during Middle childhood: sibling relationships
- sibling relationships become increasingly meaningful, egalitarian and companionable
- important source of support for children, especially during crisis
- can be challenging having to relate to a sibling that is younger or older, and on different levels cognitively and emotionally
- sibling bullying and rivalry increases at this age, and may lead to various social, emotional, and mental difficulties in other realms (peer relationships)
Types of siblings
- traditional siblings
- half siblings
- stepsiblings
- adopted siblings
- only child
-Only children are as well-adjusted as other children, and also may be advanced in some respects
- score higher in self-esteem and achievement motivation
- do better at school and attain higher levels of education
- more creative
- they do not differ in social skills and peer acceptance
Competencies necessary for prosocial sibling relationships
- Positive engagement (play, conversation, mutual interest)
- Cohesion (help, support, loyalty and trust)
- Shared experiences that build support (unique knowledge about one another and the family)
- Regulating emotions (identify and manage emotions in difficult situations)
- Controlling behavior (refrain from behavior that the sibling finds irritating)
- Forming neutral or positive attributions (learn to check and correct faulty attributions)
- Conflict management (parental modelling and scaffolding of effective conflict management strategies is essential)
- Evaluating parental differential treatment practices (children should have a chance to say where they perceive parental treatment to be unfair)
Social development during Middle childhood: peer relationships (functions and play)
Important functions of peer relationships
- provides comradeship (love and affection)
- provides opportunity to try out new, usually forbidden, behavior
- facilitates the transfer of knowledge and information
- teaches them obedience to rules and regulations
- helps to reinforce gender roles
- provides the experience of a relationship where they can compete with others on equal footing
Peer pressure refers to the pressure from others in a peer group to conform to the behaviors and attitudes of the group
Types of play
- seeing as children have entered the concrete operational stage of cognitive development, thought processes become more logical and realistic
- this flows over into play, where they are more interested in play activities and games that involve structured rules
- they love to collect things such as marbles, cards, stickers and action figures
- play also involves improving physical skills (sports and physical play)
- mastery of skills is important to children in this age group, and they often push their limits
- children display their skills to establish their position in their peer groups
- they show interest for constructing and building things
Social development during Middle Childhood: Friendships
Functions
- Companionship
- Ego support
- Physical support
- Social comparison
- Affection and intimacy
- Stimulation
Stages of friendship during childhood
Stage 1 (birth -3 years)
- mostly play with family members
- parallel play is present
- focus is on receiving attention from adults
Stage 2 (3-6 years)
- now play with others
- friendships are based on functionality (such as those closest)
- do not form lasting friendships
Stage 3 (6-9 years)
- friendships are based on reciprocity
- friends fulfil practical needs and are helpful
- become friends with those who are friendly or complementary
- know that some situations require a ‘white lie’
- understand the concept of ‘best friend’
- selective association: tend to have fewer friends than during pre-school. Now select friends similar to them in age, gender, race, personal characteristics, attitudes and beliefs
- show cultural competence, which refers to a person’s knowledge and comfort with people of different cultural, racial or ethnic backgrounds
Stage 4 (9-13 years)
- clear gender split with friendships
- learn the importance of self-disclosure and listening
- value mutual sharing of experiences rather than toys
- recognize the thoughts and feelings of others
- the power of the peer groups and friends become stronger
- develop more effective conflict resolution/interpersonal skills
Stage 5 (13-18 years)
- friendships are based on trust
- have different friends for different functions (friendship differentiation)
- higher level of self-disclosure
- friends provide a sense of personal identity
- more time is spent with friends rather than family
Social development during Middle Childhood: Peer acceptance
Peer acceptance
- refers to the degree to which peers socially accept a child
- it differs from friendship in that it is not a mutual relationship, but rather a one-sided perspective involving the group’s view of an individual
Categories of peer acceptance
1. Popular children (popular-prosocial and popular-antisocial)
2. Rejected children (rejected- aggressive and rejected-withdrawn)
3. Controversial children (a blend of positive and negative social behaviours)
4. Neglected children (shy, withdrawn Nd non-assertive)
5. Average children (neither popular or unpopular)
Social development during Middle childhood: Peer victimisation
Peer victimisation
- Bullying is an ongoing and deliberate misuse of power through repeated verbal, physical and/or social behaviour that intends to cause physical, social and/or psychological harm
Three main features of bullying
- the misuse of power
- it is ongoing
- involves behaviour that can cause harm
Types of bullying
1. Physical bullying
2. Verbal bullying
3. Social bullying (exclusion and rumours)
4. Cyberbullying (Persistent, permanent, hard to notice)
Why would children take part in bullying
- bullies tend to have an antisocial personality and be impulsive
- come from homes where there is abuse and parents take part in antisocial activities, with an authoritarian parental style being dominant
- may experience peer pressure to partake in bullying (External and internal pressure)
- high levels of bullying has been linked to inappropriate teacher responses, poor teacher-learner relationships, lack of teacher support and lack of engagement in school activities
- the societal climate also influences the prevalence of bullying
- boys are more often the bullies, as well as the victims of bullying
- boys tend to engage in physical and verbal bullying, while girls are more involved in verbal and relational bullying
- Grade 5 pupils reported the highest rate of bullying
- more prevalent in public schools
Parent contribution to Cognition and academic achievement
- extrinsic motivation (gifts) vs intrinsic motivation (cultivating pride and hard work)
- intrinsic motivation is best
- different parental styles have different influences on achievement
1. Authoritative parents = curios children who achieve more
2. Authoritarian parents = children who rely more on extrinsic motivation
3. Permissive parents = lower achievers
4. Rejecting-neglecting parents = lower cognitive function and motivation
5. Overindulgent parents = little to no achievement motivation
