Study Guide #2 Flashcards
acculturation
the transmission of culture from one generation to the next
acting crowd
a crowd where the members are actively and enthusiastically involved in doing something that is directly related to their goal
enculturation
the process of learning and adapting to the culture one is born into
agent provocateur
a person who is employed by the government or the police to encourage certain groups of people to break the law, so they can arrest them or make them lose public support
assimilation
the process by which a minority integrates socially, culturally, and/or politically into a larger, dominant culture and society
authority
power that people accept as rightly exercised over them
charismatic authority
authority based on an individual’s outstanding traits, which attracts followers
rational-legal authority
authority based on law or written rules and regulations
traditional authority
authority based on custom
biological theory of deviance
an individual deviates from social norms largely because of their biological makeup
psychological theory of deviance
use a deviant’s psychology to explain his motivation and compulsion to violate social norms
sociological theory of deviance
those that use social context and social pressures to explain deviance
biology vs. culture
explores whether human behaviour and societal structures are primarily shaped by biological factors (nature) or cultural influences (nurture)
capitalism
an economic system characterized by the private ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of profit, and market competition
citizenship
the concept that birth (and residence) in a country imparts basic rights
coercion
power that people do not accept as rightly exercised over them
collective behaviour
any group behavior that is not mandated or regulated by an institution
confederal union
political alliance of sovereign states that voluntarily join together for common purposes.
These states retain their individual sovereignty and autonomy, but agree to cooperate on certain matters by transferring some specific powers to a central authority
conflict theory
society is a dynamic interplay of competition for scarce resources and power, leading to social change and inequality
conformity
the process whereby people change their beliefs, attitudes, actions, or perceptions to more closely match those held by groups to which they belong or want to belong or by groups whose approval they desire
conspicuous consumption
the practice of acquiring and displaying goods and services primarily to demonstrate wealth and social status, rather than for their practical utility
corporate crime
crimes committed by companies rather than individuals
credential societies
the use of diplomas and degrees to determine who is eligible for jobs, even though the diploma or degree may be irrelevant to the actual work
crime
actions that violate established social norms and cause harm, considered wrong by society and punishable by law
cult
anew or different religion, with few followers, whose teachings and
practices put it at odds with the dominant culture and religion
cultural bias
the interpretation of situations, actions, or data based on the standards of one’s own culture
cultural lag
material culture (technology, tangible objects) changes more rapidly than non-material culture (values, beliefs, norms, ideas)
cultural transmission
in reference to education, the ways schools transmit a society’s culture, especially its core values
degradation ceremonies
the process of transforming one’s total identity to an identity that is lower in status and ejecting the individual from the group
direct democracy
a form of democracy in which eligible voters meet together to discuss issues and make their decisions
democracy
a system of government in which authority derives from the people
representative democracy
a form of democracy in which voters elect representatives to govern and make decisions on their behalf
democratic socialism
a hybrid economic system in which capitalism is mixed with state ownership
demonstrations
often involving a public gathering or march, where people express their opinions or make a demand, typically with the goal of influencing public opinion or government
denomination
a “brand name” within a major religion, for example, Methodist or Baptist
dictatorship
a form of government in which power is seized by an individual
differential association
criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others, particularly in intimate groups
discrimination
an act of unfair treatment directed against an individual or a group
division of labour
dividing work into a series of tasks assigned to different people or groups
double day
the workload of people who work to earn money, but who are also responsible for significant amounts of unpaid domestic labor
dual/split labour market
workers split along racial, ethnic, gender, age, or any other lines; this split is exploited by owners to weaken the bargaining power of workers
ecclesia
a religious group so integrated into the dominant culture that it is difficult to tell where one begins and the
other leaves off; also referred to as state religion
economy
a system of distribution of goods and services
education
a formal system of teaching knowledge, values, and skills
ego-involved participant
the extent to which an individual’s self-concept is linked to their position on a specific issue or activity
emergent norms
crowd behavior is guided by unique social norms, which are determined by people within the crowd
ethnicity
having distinctive cultural characteristics
evangelism
an attempt to win converts
liberal feminism
focus on achieving gender equality through political and legal reform within the framework of liberal democracy
socialist feminism
concerned with the intersections of race, class, and gender; argue that patriarchal relations, including those in education, must be dismantled in order to establish a just society
radical feminism
interested in giving women a “voice” in knowledge production and all levels of education
functionalist perspectives
views society as a complex system where different parts (like institutions, norms, and values) work together to maintain stability and solidarity
fundamentalism
the belief that true religion is threatened by modernism and that the faith as it was originally practised should be restored
gatekeeping
the process by which education opens and closes doors of
opportunity; another term for the social placement function of education
gender inequality
males’ and females’ unequal access to resources, power, prestige, status, and property on the basis of their sex
gender pay gap
the average difference in earnings between men and women
glass ceiling/escalator
barriers to social advancement that many women face in some organizations
global war on terrorism
the US-led military campaign launched after the 9/11 attacks, aiming to combat international terrorist organizations and address what contributes to terrorism
herd mentality
the tendency of individuals to adopt the beliefs, behaviors, and attitudes of the majority in a group, even if they differ from their own personal beliefs
hidden curriculum
the unwritten rules of behaviour and attitudes that are taught in schools in addition to the formal curriculum
ideological commitment
a strong and often unwavering belief in a particular set of ideas, values, or a worldview
institutionalized religion
highly structured organization and rules of conduct to assure doctrinal purity and aid believers in their efforts to live with faith
internal colonialism
the policy of economically exploiting minority groups
invention discovery diffusion
invention refers to creating something new, discovery involves finding something that already exists, and diffusion describes the spread of a new idea or object from one culture to another
job/pink ghettoes
employment areas dominated
by women (and usually lower paid than areas dominated by men)
labelling theory
indicates that society’s assigning of labels to individuals or certain groups can have an effect on their behavior
laissez-faire capitalism
unrestrained manufacture and trade
legitimation
getting people to psychologically commit themselves to the society they live in, to believe that it is morally sound and superior to other possible modes of organization
repression
occurs when legitimation fails. Frequently involves the means of coercion including the police, army and courts to protect the state and the capitalist system from serious challenges
accumulation
what the state does to assist the capitalist class in its accumulation of capital
macro politics
the exercise of large-scale power, the government being the most common example
micro politics
refers to the exercise of power in everyday life
manifest functions of education
the intended and openly stated purposes of education, such as providing knowledge, skills, and preparing students for future careers
latent functions of education
the unintended and often unrecognized consequences or outcomes of the educational system. learning social norms, creating social networks
market
any process of buying and selling; on a more formal level, the mechanism that establishes values for the exchange of goods and services
market force
the law of supply and demand
law of supply and demand
Supply rises while demand declines as the price increases. Supply constricts while demand grows as the price drops
mass society theory
describes modern society as a large, often impersonal collection of individuals, characterized by a decline of traditional institutions and a rise of mass culture and communication
Mechanical Solidarity
People cooperate because they are alike
Organic Solidarity
People must cooperate because they are specialized and no longer self-sufficient
minimax strategy
prioritizes minimizing potential losses or maximizing minimum gains in situations involving uncertainty
minority group
a group discriminated against on the basis of its members’ physical or cultural characteristics
dominant group
the group with the most power, greatest privileges, and highest social status
modernization
the transformation of traditional societies into industrial societies
moral community
people united by their religious practices
moral panic
a widespread fear that an evil person, group, or entity threatens a community or society
multiculturalism/pluralism
a philosophy or political policy that encourages ethnic variation
neoliberalism
a version of the capitalist economic system based on the
realization of a 24-hour global economy, made possible by the rapid
expansion of global information and telecommunications technologies
panic
sudden, intense fear or anxiety that spreads rapidly within a group, often leading to irrational and uncontrolled behavior
patriarchy
a society in which men dominate women
pluralism
people of different social classes, religions, races, etc., are together in a society but continue to have their different traditions and interests
police discretion
the freedom of police officers to make decisions as they perform their official duties
political socialization
the way in which young people are inculcated with beliefs, ideas, and values that embrace the civil order through the education system
positive sanction
rewards given for conforming to norms
negative sanction
a penalty or punishment imposed on an individual or group for violating a social norm or law
postmodern society
a time of progressivism in society that actively deviates and challenges what is known as the modern era
power
the ability to carry out one’s will, even over the resistance of others
power elite
those who rule a country: the top
people in the leading corporations who make the nation’s major decisions
pre-contractual solidarity
the collective sense of belonging to a community and obligation to the welfare of the community
prejudice
an attitude of prejudging, usually in a negative way
primary sector
that part of the economy that extracts raw materials from the environment
secondary sector
that part of the economy that turns raw materials into manufactured goods
tertiary sector
that part of the economy that consists of service-oriented occupations
primary social deviance
someone violates a social norm or law, but the act is not perceived as deviant or is perceived as a minor issue that doesn’t significantly change their social standing
secondary social deviance
the individual is labeled as deviant by society or significant others, and they internalize that label and begin to act in ways that are consistent with the label
tertiary social deviance
individuals who have been labeled deviant trying to challenge or redefine that label
proactive social movements
promote social change because a current condition of society is intolerable
proportional representation
an electoral system in which seats in a legislature are divided according to the proportion of votes each political party receives
protestant ethic
Weber’s term to describe the ideal of a self-denying, highly moral life, accompanied by hard work and frugality
spirit of capitalism
Weber’s term for the desire to accumulate capital as a duty and to constantly reinvest it
routinization of charisma
the transition of authority from charismatic leadership to rational-legal authority
race
inherited physical characteristics that distinguish one group from
another
racism
prejudice and discrimination on the basis of race
reactive social movements
one that actively resists or seeks to undo social changes
relative autonomy
the state acts on behalf of the capitalist class but not on its direct orders
religion
beliefs and practices that separate the profane from the sacred and unite its adherents into a moral community
reserve labour force
capitalists take workers “out of reserve” (put them back to work) during times of high production and then lay them off (put them back in reserve) when they are no longer needed
resource mobilization
advocates having the right type of resource at the right time at the right price by making the right use of acquired resources thus ensuring optimum usage
revolution
armed resistance designed to overthrow a government
role extension
the process by which an individual’s roles expand or change beyond their initial expectations or responsibilities
ritual
ceremonies or repetitive practices; in this context, religious observances or rites, often intended to evoke awe for the sacred
profane
common elements of everyday life
sacred
things set apart or forbidden that inspire fear, awe, reverence, or deep respect
scapegoat
an individual or group unfairly blamed for someone else’s troubles
sect
a group larger than a cult that still feels substantial hostility from
and toward society
segregation
the policy of keeping racial or ethnic groups apart
selective perception
seeing certain features of an object or situation, but remaining blind to others
self-fulfilling prophecy
originally false assertion that becomes true simply because it was predicted
self-labelling
individuals choose and apply labels to themselves to define their identity, values, and behaviors
sex typing of work
the societal association of certain jobs, occupations, or fields of study as inherently “masculine” or “feminine,” often leading to gender segregation in the workplace
prestige
respect or regard
sex
the biological characteristics that distinguish males and females
gender
the biological characteristics that distinguish males and females
sexual harassment
the abuse of one’s position of authority to force unwanted sexual demands on someone
social change
the transformation of cultures, behaviors, social institutions, and social structures over time
social construction of reality
the way we present ourselves to other people is shaped partly by our interactions with others, as well as by our life experiences
social control
the regulations, sanctions, mechanisms, and systems that restrict the behaviour of individuals in accordance with social norms and orders
social integration
the degree to which people are tied to their social group
social movements
an organized effort to change laws, policies, or practices by people who do not have the power to effect change through conventional channels
social norms
the informal, unwritten rules that define acceptable and appropriate behavior within a group or community
social placement
a function of education that funnels people into a society’s various positions
socialism
an economic system characterized by the public ownership of the means of production, central planning, and the distribution of goods without a profit motive
state
a political entity that claims monopoly on the use of violence in
some particular territory; commonly known as a country
status of women in China
complex and multifaceted issue, shaped by historical, cultural, and political factors
stereotypes
belief about a group of people based on inaccurate assumptions about their characteristics or behaviours
stigma
an attribute, behavior, or reputation which is socially discrediting in a particular way
strain theory
proposes that individuals, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds, may turn to criminal or deviant behavior as a way to cope with the pressure of achieving socially valued goals
subsistence economy
a type of economy in which human groups live off the land with little or no surplus
technology and society
the study of the interplay and mutual influence between technological advancements and societal structures, behaviors, and values
theories of social change
attempt to explain how and why societies and their structures transform over time
totalitarianism
a form of government that exerts almost total control over the people
tracking
the sorting of students into different educational programs on the basis of real or perceived abilities
underemployment
the condition of having to work at a job beneath one’s level of training and abilities, or only part-time work
underground economy
exchanges of goods and services that are not reported to the government and thereby escape taxation
unemployment
when an individual who is not employed and is seeking employment, cannot find work
unitary state
a form of government in which all power resides with the central government
values
the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable
welfare (state) capitalism
an economic system in which individuals own the means of production, but the state regulates many economic activities for the welfare of the population
white-collar crime
financially motivated, non-violent crimes committed by individuals and organizations in professional or business settings
women’s movement first wave
primarily focused on securing women’s legal rights, particularly the right to vote
women’s movement second wave
movement focused on critiquing patriarchal or male-dominated institutions and cultural practices throughout society
absolute monarchs
system of government where a single ruler has total power over a state and its people
agents of socialization
people or groups that affect our self-concept, attitudes, or other orientations toward life
Anomie
An absence of shared norms and values, disconnectedness, people unsure of guiding rules
anticipatory socialization
learning part of a future role because one anticipates it
applied sociology
the use of sociology to solve problems—from the micro-level of family relationships to the macro-level of crime and pollution
authority
power that people accept as rightly exercised over them
beliefs
convictions that people hold to be true about the world, society, and life
biological determinism
the belief that the way we act reflects built-in biological traits
Bourgeoisie
Capitalists; those who own the means of production
merchant capitalism
bringing items to places that don’t have these items so they can control prices
industrial capitalism
liberal economics explains relationships of productions
monopoly capitalism
create giant companies with thousand’s of employee’s that changed power in society
global capitalism
concept of a global economy dominated by globalizing corporations and those who own and control them
capitalist world economy
global economic system where the production and distribution of goods are driven by private ownership of the means of production
caste system
a form of social stratification in which one’s status is determined by birth and is lifelong
centre/core
the dominant group or area that controls resources, power, and influence
semi-periphery
countries that are neither core nor peripheral. Have characteristics of both
periphery
a less developed region that is dependent on a more developed core region
clan
an extended network of relatives
class in itself
a social group whose members share the same relationship to the means of production
class for itself
members have full awareness of the true situation, by a realization of the nature of exploitation
classes
economic groups (Marx’s term)
status
distribution of social honour or prestige deriving not just from wealth but from lifestyle
party
the organizational means to exercise power (make laws)
Class conflict
The struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat
class/false consciousness
refer to workers identifying with the interests of capitalists
class structure
the hierarchical arrangement of individuals in a society based on wealth, income, occupation, education, and social status
clique
a cluster of people within a larger group who choose to interact with one another
colonization
practice of one group of people/nation dominating another group over a sustained period of time
contradictory class location
a position in the class structure that generates contradictory interests
counterculture
a group whose values, beliefs, and related behaviours
place its members in opposition to the broader culture
cultural capital
the non-economic social assets an individual possesses, like knowledge, skills, behaviors, and tastes
cultural diffusion
the spread of cultural characteristics from one group to another
cultural leveling
the process by which cultures become similar to one another, and especially by which Western industrial culture is imported and diffused into developing nations
cultural relativism
understanding a different culture on its own terms
maquiladoras
factories in Mexico that assemble imported parts into products for export
culture
the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviours, and even
material objects passed from one generation to the next
cultural universal
a value, norm, or other cultural trait that is found in every group
culture of poverty
assumption that the values and behaviours of the poor make them fundamentally different from other people,
that these factors are largely responsible for their poverty,
and their parents pass their “poor” traits down generations
keynesian economics
theory of total spending in the economy has its effects on output, employment, and inflation
dependency theory
explains how poor countries depend on rich countries
debt crisis
situation when a government, organization, or individual is unable to pay their debts
divine right of kings
monarch’s authority to rule comes directly from God, meaning they are not accountable to their people but only God
endogamy
the practice of marrying within one’s own group
ethnocentrism
the use of one’s own culture for judging the ways of other individuals or societies, generally leading to a
negative evaluation of their values, norms, and behaviours
export processing zones
tax-free “factory cities” where young Asian women are often lured by the promise of good jobs manufacturing
products for export
folkways
norms that are not strictly enforced
functional analysis
a theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium
play stage
a developmental phase in childhood, according to Mead’s theory, where children begin to learn about social roles by imitating and acting out the behaviors of significant others, like parents or teachers
game stage
the final stage in Mead’s theory of self-development, where children learn to understand and follow rules, take on multiple social roles, and develop an awareness of the “generalized other” by participating in organized games with other players
gender roles
the behaviours and attitudes considered appropriate because
one is a female or a male
socialization
the process which societies culture is absorbed
generalized other
the norms, values, attitudes, and expectations of “people in general”
globalization
the extensive movement of capital and ideas between nations due to the expansion of capitalism
habitus
embracing a set of skills and way of looking at the world that reflects hierarchical social structures
human agency
the ability to individually or collectively resist social pressures and provide for social change
ideology
beliefs about the way things need to be that justify social arrangements
immigration
people moving to a new country to settle permanently or take up work
imperialism
when countries take over other countries so they can expand their markets and gain access to cheap raw materials
in-group
groups toward which one feels loyalty
out-group
groups toward which one feels antagonism
wealth
property and income
indentured service
people whose passage to another country was paid for in exchange for labour
International Monetary Fund
organization that’s influenced by the ideas and interests of the environment it operates in
intersectionality
the interrelationships among various inequalities
language
a system of symbols that can be combined in an infinite
number of ways and can represent not only objects but also abstract thought
mass media
forms of communication, such as radio, newspapers, and television, directed to mass audiences
material culture
the material objects that distinguish a group of people. Physical products of society
means of production
the tools, factories, land, and investment capital used to produce wealth
meritocracy
a form of social stratification in which all positions are awarded on the basis of merit
middle range theories
explanations of human behaviour that go beyond a particular observation or research but avoid sweeping generalizations that attempt to account for everything
modernization theory
explains how nations transition from traditional to modern societies
mores
norms that are strictly enforced because they are thought to be
essential to core values
multinational corporations
a large company that operates and conducts business activities in multiple countries
neocolonialism
the shift after World War II where the most industrialized nations turned to international markets as a way of controlling the least industrialized nations
neoliberalism
a version of the capitalist economic system based on the realization of a 24-hour global economy,
made possible by the rapid expansion of global information and telecommunications technologies
non-material culture
a group’s ways of thinking and doing (its common patterns of behaviour, including language and other forms of interaction)
norms
the expectations or rules of behaviour that develop out of values
origins of sociology
sociology emerged in the 19th century in response to social and political upheaval
peer group
a group of individuals roughly the same age linked by common interests
power
the ability to carry out one’s will, even over the resistance of others
prestige
respect or regard
primary groups
a group characterized by intimate, long-term, face-to-face association and co-operation
secondary groups
large group of people who share a purpose and work toward a common interest or goal
Proletariat
workers; must sell their labor power to survive
protestant ethic
Weber’s term to describe the self-denying, highly moral ideal life, accompanied by hard work and frugality
pure or basic sociology
sociological research whose only purpose is to make discoveries about life in human groups, not to make changes in those groups
reference group
the groups we use as standards to evaluate ourselves
resocialization
the process of learning new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviours
sanctions
expressions of approval or disapproval given to people for
upholding or violating norms
sapir-whorf hypothesis
language creates ways of thinking and perceiving
scientific method
the use of objective, systematic observations to test theories
significant other
an individual who significantly influences someone else’s life
self
the unique human capacity of being able to see ourselves “from the outside” - similar to looking glass-self
social class
a large number of people with similar amounts of income and education who work at jobs roughly comparable in prestige
social integration
the degree to which people are tied to their social group
social location
the group memberships that people have because of their location in history and society
social mobility
permits movement up or down the class ladder based on achievement (restricted by differential inheritance)
intergenerational mobility
adult children ending up on a different rung of the social class ladder than their parents
structural mobility
changes in society that cause large numbers of people to move up or down
exchange mobility
when large numbers of people move up or down the social class ladder but the proportions stay the same
social stratification
society is organized into hierarchical layers or groups based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power
society
group of people who
share a culture and a territory
sociological imagination
Way of looking at the world that links the apparently private troubles of the individual to important social issues
sociological perspective
an approach to understanding human behaviour that by placing it within its broader social context
status consistency
ranking high or low on all three dimensions of social class
status inconsistency
ranking high on some dimensions of social class and low on others
spirit of capitalism
Weber’s term for the desire to accumulate capital as a duty and to constantly reinvest it
structural adjustment
a critical process in the developing world that involves economic and political changes imposed by international organizations to address issues of poverty and governance
subculture
the values and related behaviours of a group that distinguish its members from the larger culture
subjective meanings
the meanings that people give their own behaviour
Symbolic Interaction
View symbols as the basis of social life and focuses on face-to-face interactions
symbols
something to which people attach meanings and then use to
communicate with others
taboo
a norm so strong that it brings revulsion (disgust) if violated
taking the role of the other
understanding how someone else feels and thinks and thus anticipating
how that person will act
Theory
General statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work
total institution
a place in which people are cut off from the rest of society and are almost totally controlled by the officials who run the
place
United Nations
intergovernmental organization that works to promote international cooperation and peace, and address global challenges
security council
concept of social control to maintain order
values
the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable
value-free
an ideal condition in which a sociologist’s personal values or
biases do not influence social research
Verstehen
Weber suggested that instead, we should focus on subjective meanings, the ways in which people interpret their own behaviour
world bank
international financial institution that affects global stratification, wealth, and poverty
world system theory
approach to world history and social change that suggests there is a world economic system in which some countries benefit while others are exploited
World Trade Organization
international organization that establishes and enforces rules for trade between countries
