Study Guide Flashcards
evidence or observations grounded in human sensory experience: touch, sight, hearing, smell, and taste.
Empirical
the many forms of empirical evidence or information, carefully collected according to the rules or procedures of science.
Data
a characteristic or attribute of an individual or organization that can be measured or observed
Variable
How does each term: empirical, data, and variable relate to each other?
they are all used in quantitative and qualitative research methods in different ways.
List the five basic norms of the scientific community
- Universalism
- Organized Skepticism
- Disinterestedness
- Communalism
- Honesty
Why is Universalism an important part of the scientific community?
research is judged only on the basis of scientific merit regardless of who conducts the research or where.
Why is Organized Skepticism an important part of the scientific community?
scientists challenge, question, and subject each study to intense scrutiny but their criticism isn’t to attack the individual but ensure the methods used in research are carefully and closely examined.
Why is Disinterestedness an important part of the scientific community?
scientist are neutral, impartial, receptive, and open to unexpected observations and new ideas that go against their positions and base it on high quality research.
Why is Communalism an important part of the scientific community?
scientific knowledge is shared with everyone because it’s a public act that is universal to everyone and available to use
Why is Honesty an important part of the scientific community?
scientist demand honesty in all research as dishonesty or cheating is taboo in scientific research.
has limited evidence but assume that it applies to many other situations
- Overgeneralization
take special notice of certain people or events and generalize from them
- Selective Observation
believe that we no longer need to listen, seek information, or raise questions because we already have an answer
- Premature Closure
overgeneralized trust in highly prestigious source such as, positive representation to sources or people we trust
- Halo Effect
inability to distinguish personal beliefs from what others believe, as there’s an overestimation
- False Consensus
belief we know much more than we actually do but aren’t as smart or well-informed as we think we are.
- Illusion of Explanatory Depth
experimental procedures, treatments, or experiences of participants that **threaten the researcher’s ability **to draw correct inferences from the data about the population in an experiment.
Internal Validity Threats
Examples of Internal Validity Threats
regression, election, and mortality
experimenters draw incorrect inferences from sample data to other people, settings, past or future situations
External Validity Threats
Examples of External Validity Threats
Interaction of selection and treatment
Interaction of setting and treatment
Interaction of history and treatment
experimenters draw inaccurate inferences from data because inadequate statistical power or violation of statistical assumptions
Statistical Conclusion Validity Threats
Used in the final outcome of a study and placed at the end of a research project or at the beginning as it provides a lens that shapes what is looked at and the questions asked
Use of Theory in Qualitative Research
Used deductively and placed at the beginning of a proposed study to test or verify a theory by examining hypotheses or questions containing variables or constructs to confirm or disconfirm the theory
Use of Theory in Quantitative Research
Used to both test theories and generate them as it involves a theoretical framework where both qualitative and quantitive data are collected
Use of Theory in Mixed Methods Research
tests the impact of a treatment or intervention on an outcome while controlling for all other factors that might influence it
Experimental Design (Alternative Quantitive Research Method Design)
provides plans for qualitative or numeric description of trends, opinions, and attitudes of a population by the sample of the population
Survey Design (Alternative Quantitative Research Method Design)
researcher explores a program, event, or process in detail of one or more individuals over a period of time
Case Study (Alternative Qualitative Research Method Design)
research studies an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time by collecting observational and interview data
Ethnography (Alternative Qualitative Research Method Design)
the lives of individuals are studied and the stories provided by the group or individual are retold or restated by the researcher into narrative chronology
Narrative Research (Alternative Qualitative Research Method Design)
human experiences about a phenomenon described by participants in the study
Phenomenological Research (Alternative Qualitative Research Method Design)
Researcher derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in views of participants in a study
Grounded Theory (Alternative Qualitative Research Method Design)
Quantitive and qualitative data is collected, analyzed separately, then the results are compared to see if the findings confirm or disconfirm each other
Congruent Mixed Methods Design (Alternative Mixed Methods Design)
two-phase project in which the researcher collects qualitative data in the first phase, analyzes the results, then uses a qualitative phase to help explain the quantitative results
Explanatory Sequential (Alternative Mixed Methods Design)
three-phase project which the researcher first collects qualitative data, analyzes it, then designs a quantitative feature based on qualitative results and tests the quantitative features
Exploratory Sequential (Alternative Mixed Methods Design)
data collection stops because fresh data no longer sparks new insight or reveals new properties
Saturation
well-test explanation that unifies a broad range of observations that can be utilized in quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research
Theory
a prediction about a specific event or relationship between variables
Hypothesis
variables manipulated in an experiment
Independent Variable
the outcomes or results of the independent variables
Dependent Variable
variables used to predict the outcome of interest and can’t be manipulated
Predictor Variable
variables considered outcomes or results of predictor variables
Outcome Variable
Occurs between two other variables in a chain of cause-and-effect
Intervening Mediating Variable
variables that affect the direction/strength of the relationship between independent and dependent variables as they act and intersect with each other
Moderating Variable
-consider code of ethics
-apply to the IRB
-obtain necessary permissions
-select a site without vested interest
-negotiate authorship for publication
Ethical Issues Prior to Conducting the Study
-consult the code of ethics for professional association in the area
-submit approval for IRB approval
-go through local approvals and find gatekeepers to help
-select sites that will not raise power issues with research
-give credit for work done on the project and decide the author
How to address the ethical issue for Prior to Conducting the Study
-identify a beneficial research problem for participants
-disclose the purpose of the study
-don’t pressure participants into signing consent forms
-respect norms and charters of indigenous cultures
Ethical Issues at the Beginning of the Study
-conduct a informal conversation with participants about their needs
-contact participants and inform them of the general purpose of the study
-tell participants they don’t have to sign the consent form
-find out about cultural, religious, and other differences that need to be respected
How to address the ethical issue for Beginning of the Study
-avoid going native
-avoid disclosing only positive results
-respect the privacy of participants
Ethical Issues Collecting Data
-report multiple perspectives
-report contrary findings
-assign fictitious names or aliases and develop composite profiles of participants
How to address the issue for Collecting Data
-falsifying authorship, evidence, data, findings, or conclusions
-don’t plagiarize
-avoid disclosing information that would harm participants
-communicate in clear straightforward, appropriate language
-share data with others
Ethical Issues Reporting, Storing, and Sharing
-report honestly
-use composite stories so individuals can’t be identified
-use unbiased language appropriate for audiences of the research
-store data and materials for 5 years
-give credit for ownership to researcher, participants, and advisors
How to address ethical issues for Reporting, Storing, and Sharing
Researchers reflect on their own biases, values, and personal background as past experiences ultimately shape the interpretations formed during the study (e.g., memos)
Role of Reflexivity
the employment of certain procedures in order for the researcher to check for accuracy of findings
Qualitative Validity
indicates a particular approach is consistent across different researchers and projects
Qualitative Reliability
consistency or repeatability of an instrument
Reliability
the degree to which sets of items on an instrument behave in the same way
Internal Consistency
helps determine if a topic is worth studying or not and if so broadens the researchers knowledge within a field by providing a unique perspective on a general or narrow topic
Importance of a Literature Review in a Research Project
can fill in gaps of existing research or other areas that need further exploration which can lead to new discoveries and ideas
How a published literature can inform the direction of a research project
holds a deterministic philosophy in which causes determine effects or outcomes such as, those found in experiments
- Postpositivist Worldview
individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live and work and develop subjective meanings of their experiences
- Constructivist Worldview
research inquiry needs to be intertwined with politics and political change to confront social oppression at whatever levels it occurs (e.g., inequality of marginalized groups)
- Transformative Worldview
Arises out of actions, situations and consequences and uses all approaches available to understand and emphasize the problem
- Pragmatic Worldview
In a research study, the researcher decides on a philosophical worldview to use and from there, a research design (e.g., experiments) is chosen that correlates with one of the four philosphical worldviews (postpostivist, constructivist, transformative, pragmatic) before a specific method or procedure such as, questions or data collection ultimately forms one of the three research approaches.
The Interconnection between Philosophical Worldviews, Design, and Method
forms participants sign before they engage in a research study and acknowledges the rights of participants will be protected during data collection of the research study
Informed Consent
-identifies purpose of the study
-identifies benefits for participants
-identifies level and type of participant involvement
-goes over risk with participants
-guarantees confidentiality with participants
-assures participants can withdraw at any time
How Informed Consent protects human participants
best used when sampling the people or other elements directly because the researcher has access to names
Single Stage Sampling Design
best used when it’s impossible or impractical to compile a list of elements composing the population
Multistage (Clustering) Sampling Design
a procedure in quantitative research where each individual has an **equal probability **of being selected from the population, ensuring the sample is representative of the population
Random Sampling
respondents are chosen based on their convenience and availability also referred to as, convenience sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
specific characteristics of individuals are represented in the sample and the sample reflects the true proportion in the population of individuals with certain characteristics (e.g., gender)
Stratification
researcher has firsthand experience with participant
researcher can record information as it occurs
unusual aspects can be noticed during observation
useful in exploring topics that may be uncomfortable for participants to discuss
Pros of Qualitative Observations
researcher may be seen as intrusive
private information may be observed that research cannot report
researcher may not to have good attending and observing skills
certain participants (e.g., children) may present special problems in gaining rapport
Cons of Qualitative Observations
useful when participants cannot be directly observed
participants can provide historical information
allows researcher control over the line of questioning
Pros of Qualitative Interviews
provides indirect information filtered through the views of interviewees
provides information in a designated place rather than the natural field setting
researcher’s presence may bias responses
not all people are equally articulate and perceptive
Cons of Qualitative Interviews
enables a researcher to obtain the language and words of participants
can be accessed at a time convenient to researcher
represents data to which participants have given attention
written evidence saves a researcher the time and expense of transcribing
Pros of Qualitative Documents
not all people are equally articulate and perceptive
may be protected information unavailable to public or private access
requires the researcher to search out the information in hard to find places
materials may be incomplete
Cons of Qualitative Documents
may be an unobtrusive method of collecting data
provides an opportunity for participants to directly share their reality
it is creative in that it captures attention visually
Pros of Qualitative Audiovisual Digital Materials
may be difficult to interpret
may not be accessible publicly or privately
the presence of an observer (e.g., photographer) may be disruptive and affect responses
Cons of Qualitative Audiovisual Digital Materials
- Select Topic
- Focus Question
- Design Study
- Collect Data
- Analyze Data
- Interpret Data
- Inform Others
Seven Steps used in Qualitative Research Process
topic can be general or an issue that’s of personal or professional interest. Topics can be broad, focusing on topics like divorce
Select Topic
the topic has to be narrowed to focus on a specific research question that can be addressed in the study if it is too broad such as, looking at literature reviews and developing hypotheses that come from social theories
Focus Question
requires making decisions informed by the theory such as, the type of case or sample to select, how to measure factors that are relevant, and what research technique to use
Design Study
carefully record and verify information in the form of numbers and transfer numerical data into a format readable for the computer
Collecting Data
uses computer software to manipulate the numerical data to create charts, graphs, and statistical measures as it provides a smaller picture of the data
Analyze Data
analyzed data is examined in order to answer the research question through considerations such as, alternative interpretation of data, comparing results to past studies, and drawing out what has been learned
Interpret Data
a report is written about the study in a certain format and a description of both the study and its results are presented
Inform Others
- Acknowledge Social Self and Context
- Adopt Perspective
- Design Study
- Collect Data
- Analyze Data
- Interpret Data
- Inform Others
Seven Steps in Qualitative Research Process
starts with a topic in simultaneous with performing self-assessments and placing the topic in a socio-historical context as researchers rely on personal beliefs, biography or certain current issues to identify the topic that’s of interest
Acknowledge Social Self and Context
Researchers choose a direction that might contain potential questions as they focus on theoretical philosophical paradigms or ongoing discussions with other researchers instead of narrowing the topic
Adopt Perspective
Qualitative researchers not only design a study but also, collect, analyze, and interpret data at the same time. The reason for this being, researchers often go back and forth in the steps many times, building a new theory while also, testing old theory. In the interpretation stage, new concepts and theoretical interceptions are created by the researcher
Design a study, Collect, Analyze, and Interpret Data
Style of report varies in accordance with the approach used
Inform Others
evidence of different data sources are examined from the sources and used to build a coherent justification for themes which can aid in the validity of the study
- Triangulate
determines the accuracy of the qualitative findings by taking a final report or certain descriptions or themes back to participants and deterring whether the participants feel they are accurate including, case analysis
- Member Checking
convey’s findings through description that transports readers to the setting and gives the discussion and element of shared experiences
- Rich, Thick, Description
self-reflection that creates an open and honest narrative as it clarifies the bias researchers bring to the study
- Bias
information presented that counters the themes as discussing contrary information adds to a credibility of an account in real life situations such as, evidence
- Negative or Discrepant Information
time spent in the field where, the researcher develops and in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under study and conveys details about the site and people
- Prolonged Time
locating a person who reviews and asks questions about the qualitative study so the account will resonate with people other than the researcher
- Peer Debriefing
auditor is unfamiliar with the researcher or project and can provide an objective assessment of the project throughout the process of researcher or the conclusion of the study
- External Auditor
- Transcripts are checked to make sure they don’t contain obvious mistakes made during transcription
- Making sure there is not a drift in definition of codes or shift in meaning of codes during process of coding by continuously comparing data with codes by writing memos
- Coordinate the communication among coders by regular documented meetings and sharing analysis for team research
- Cross check codes developed by different researchers through interceder agreements where another person checks the codes and several procedures are included in the proposal as evidence
Four Reliability Techniques
Quantitive research methods include, quantitive research questions that involves relationships among variables the researcher wants to know
Quantitative Research Question
quantitative hypotheses are predictions the research makes about the expected outcomes of relationships among variables
Quantitative Hypothesis
researcher asks three research questions: qualitative question, quantitive question or hypothesis, and a mixed methods question
Mixed Methods Research Question and Hypothesis
