Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Biology and Economics > Study for tests > Flashcards

Study for tests Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the other 3 functions of proteins?

A

Cell signaling:
- Hormones: messenger proteins to help with bodily function Ex. Insulin (regulate blood sugar levels by allowing sugar to enter cell), steroids (vitamin D)
- Receptors : proteins that receive messages Ex. Rhodopsin in eyes for vision, Botox destroys receptor proteins

Storage proteins: helps reserve amino acids for later use of body as energy Ex. Ovalbumin in eggs and milk

Structural Proteins: provides structure to body parts bones and hair but also in cells. Ex. collagen, keratin, actin , myosin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What are conjugated proteins?

A

Conjugated proteins are consists of amino acids and 1 or more prosthetic groups,non protein group that can be inorganic or organic,in which play an important role in the overall protein. Ex. Hemoglobin which the haem group binds to the oxygen.
Nonconjugated proteins only consists of amino acids .

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What are the first 4 functions of proteins?

A

Enzymes: catalyze chemical reactions in the body. Ex amylase (digestive enzyme for starch), Rubisco (enzyme in plants for photosynthesis)

Contractile Proteins: contract muscle allowing for movement of muscles Ex. Myosin , actin

Transportation: transportation of molecules within the body Ex. Transmembrane proteins, Hemoglobins in red blood cells

Defensive Proteins : aid in the protection of an organism from pathogens. Ex. Antibodies

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What is the different between catabolic pathway and anabolic pathway?

A

Anabolic pathway: condensation reaction

Catabolic pathways : hydrolysis reaction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What are proteins?

A

Proteins are macromolecules made up of elements:carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and some sulfur. They are also 3D structures made of 1 or more polypeptide chains

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What is GDP? What doesn’t count as GDP?

A

GDP is the monetary value of all final goods/services produced in a country’s borders in a certain timeframe (usually a year).

Ex. buying a used car does not affect GDP because nothing new is being produced

Buying financial assets like stocks don’t count as GDP

Illegal activities aren’t recorded so they don’t count towards GDP

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What is the monomer and polymer of proteins

A

Monomer of proteins are amino acids and polymers of proteins are polypeptides

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Describe the structure of the formation of a polypeptide.

A

draw polypeptide between two amino acids, a peptide bond is formed releasing a water molecule.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What is collagen

A

Collagen is the most abundant protein found in mammals and is a structural protein found in the extracellular matrix.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What bond forms between amino acids to form a polypeptide?

A

Peptide bonds are covalent bonds that form between amino acids. It is also a condensation reaction.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What is and why do we use real GDP?

A

The GDP is hard to compare with every country due to factors like the inflationary rate which is different from country to country. Nomical GDP is GDP but not adjusted for the inflationary rate but Real GDP adjusts for the inflationary rate allowing us to compare easily the GDP of different countries.

Looking at GDP and how it increases and decreases overtime allows you to look at the economic growth of a country.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What is a recession?

A

When GDP decreases for 6 months consecutively.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What are the 3 main Macroeconomic objectives for policy makers and how are they measured?

A

Economic Growth (GDP), Lower the unemployment rate (unemployment rate), and keep prices stable (inflation rate).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What is the process of protein folding?

A

Primary Structure: this is when amino acids are bonded through peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain. This happens in the ribosome. However, just because a polypeptide chain is synthesized, it has to go through folding to become a functional protein since shape determines function.

Secondary Structure: This is when the functional groups of the amino acids in the polypeptide chains interact to form two structures: alpha helix and beta pleated sheets. The backbone is formed by hydrogen bonds that stabilize the structures. Moreover, the specific sequence and type of amino acid of the polypeptide chain determines its structure.

There tertiary structure is when the R-groups interact forming different bonds like disulfide bonds, covalent bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophilic or phobic interactions, hydrogen bonds, etc ) since there are different R-groups. The interaction of the R-groups of the tertiary structure creates a more 3D shape.

The quaternary structure is when 2 or more polypeptides / proteins start to interact.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What is the structure of an amino acid

A

draw the structure

N terminus is the start and the C terminus is the

Alpha carbon in the middle

Functional groups are the amino and carboxyl group. R groups vary which can define an amino acid:hydrophobic / hydrophilic , polar non polar, charged properties.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q
A
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Compare and contrast fibrous vs globular proteins

A

Fibrous proteins have more elongated structures while globular proteins are more round and compact.

Fiberous proteins usually function as structural proteins while globular proteins usually function for metabolism.

Fiberous proteins are typically insoluble since their surface usually comprises of hydrophobic amino acids with non-polar side chains. Globular proteins are typically soluble as the hydrophilic amino acids stay on the outside while the hydrophobic areas hide on the inside when in an aqueous solution.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What are nonessential and essential proteins?

A

Essential proteins are proteins that can’t be synthesized by the body thus needing to be taken in through the diet (9)

Non essential proteins are proteins that are synthesized by the body (11)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Que es “potholes” en español

A

hoyos

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

fearless en español

A

valiente, impávido

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Describe the structure of methane. Is it polar or nonpolar?

A

Methane has a carbon which is bonded to 4 hydrogens. It is nonpolar.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Do plants or animals have mitochondria or chloroplast?

A

Plants have both mitochondria and chloroplast while animals only have mitochondria.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What is chloroplast?

A
  • it is saclike organelle that is double membraned
  • has its own ribosomes
  • it has chlorophyll (green, photosynthetic pigment) which captures sunlight and converts it into energy hence releasing oxygen from water. Chlorophyll is found in the membrane of thylakoid which is where photosynthesis happens.

It’s cytoplasm is called the stroma.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

what type of reactions do lysosomes and peroxisomes make?

A

metabolic reactions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What is thylakoid called when it is stacked?

A

granum

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

What are protistas?

A

Eukaryotes that are usually unicelled organisms . They are neither plants, animals, nor fungi.

Ex. Algae

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What organisms is the cytoskeleton found in? What is the function of cytoskeleton?

A

Found in protista, eukaryotes, and prokaryotes. It is a network of fibers and continuously reforms itself. Many organelles hang on to it to move in cells.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Describe the function of mitochondria

A

big reservoirs of calcium. When the mitochondria gets in toxic environments, it releases calcium. Calcium serves as a second messenger.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What is a depression?

A

it is a severe recession

29
Q

How do you use GDP to see if a country has economic growth?

A

Look at how GDP increases or decreases over time allowing you to look at the economic growth of a country.

30
Q

How do you calculate the unemployment rate? What does the unemployment rate measure?

A

Unemployment rate : ( # people unemployed / # people in labor force ) x 100.

This measures the amount of people that are actively looking for a job but can’t find one. This person must be of legal age and actively looking for a job.

31
Q

What are discouraged workers?

A

Discouraged workers are unemployed people who were looking for a job but gave up. These people are not counted as unemployed.

32
Q

What are the natural rates of unemployment?

A

Frictional unemployment : is the time period between when a worker is searching for or transitioning from 1 job to another. (Just entering labor force, quit job and looking for a new one) so it’s being temporarily unemployed

Structural unemployment: caused by a lack of demand for a workers specific type of labor . Ex. includes when tech replaces workers.

Seasonal unemployment: some jobs are seasonal for example skiing. Other than the winter, they will be unemployed

The natural rate of unemployment will always exist even if the economy is doing well.

33
Q

What type of unemployment is bad?

A

cyclical unemployment : unemployment caused by a recession. Consumers stop consuming so businesses lay off workers then the workers have lower income so they stope consuming meaning more people lose jobs.

The goal for economists is to lower cyclical unemployment.

34
Q

What makes a molecule organic?

A

Backbone has carbon which is the element of life ON EARTH due to its abundance.

35
Q

What is glucose?

A

This is very common type of monomer of carbohydrates.

35
Q

Describe the structures of the two different isomers of glucose.

A

Draw the structures of alpha glucose and beta glucose

36
Q

How do you say performance (fulfillment of duty)

A

desempeño

37
Q

Interpret the Pearson Correlation coefficient, r

A

Correlation becomes stronger as r approaches 1 or -1.

r is close to 1 = strong, positive correlation

r is close to -1 = strong, negative correlation

If r=0.893, it is a strong, positive correlation meaning the y values are strongly correlated to x. So if there is an increase or decrease in x, y increases or decreases.

38
Q

what is the natural logarithm of e (lne)? What is e?

A

lne = 1 ; e is an irrational number like pi (2.7 blah blah)

39
Q

How do you calculate the % error in using the line of regression equation

A

(estimated value - real value) / real value

40
Q

What does the first and second derivative tell you about a local max or min.

A

Local max:
First derivative=0 ; second derivative < 0

Local min:
First derivative=0 ; second derivative > 0

41
Q

Where on the graph is there a tangent line?

A

When f(x) is at a local max or local min

42
Q

Rule of exponents. How can you simplify (z*)^k+1 ?

A

that equals (z)^k times (z)^1 hence it is (z)^k times (z)

43
Q

What should you do when you get a mixed number like this : 4a + 4bi + 2ai -2b?

A

You should put the real values to one side and the imaginary to another. Then get the i out.

Hence–>(4a - 2b) + (4b+2a)i

44
Q

Odd and even functions

A

Even function : f(-x) = f(x)

Odd function : f(-x) = -f(x)

45
Q

What is the first derivative for rate

A

distance / time

46
Q

When does a geometric sequence converge?

A

when -1 < r < 1

47
Q

Difference with SRAS and the LRAS

A

SRAS : relationship between the price level and the quantity demanded of a good and service in the short run when production costs are fixed.

LRAS : the economy’s max sustainable output level when all prices, including wages are fixed.

48
Q

What is continuous variation vs discontinuous variation

A

continuous variation is when the different types of variation are distributed in a continuum. Ex. Skin color, height, weight, hair texture, etc. Essentially is any value of measurement for a specific characteristic .

Discontinuous variation (discrete) is when there is only a limited number of possible characteristics of a trait.
- There is no intermediate form and no overlap between the two phenotypes.
-Characteristics that show discontinuous variation are controlled by a single gene, usually with two alleles (the human blood group system has three alleles.)
Ex. Blood type. You either have A , O etc but you can’t have anything inbetween.

49
Q

What is a species?

A

Group of individuals
- that have common ancestry
- that closely resemble each other
-are normally capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring.

Species is often defined as a group of individuals that actually or potentially interbreed in nature. Hence, a species is the biggest gene pool possible under natural conditions. For example, the happy face spiders may look vary different but since they can interbreed, they are considered the same species.

50
Q

What is the difference with interbreeding and intrabreeding?

A
51
Q

What is variation?

A

Difference between individuals of a species which may be caused by environmental and/or genetic factors.

52
Q

Gene vs Allele

A

Genes are pieces of DNA that contribute to certain traits by transcription and translation.

Alleles are different versions of a gene which vary according to the nucleotide base present at a certain genome location

53
Q

What is phenotype

A

Observable traits.

54
Q

How do you calculate lower and upper fence

A

UF : Q3 + 1.5(IQR)

LF : Q1 - 1.5(IQR)

55
Q

What are some differences with transcription/translation of prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells?

A

Transcription and translation can occur simultaneously in prokaryotes because there is no nucleus. This saves time travelled. While translation happens after transcription in eukaryotes because there is a nucleus. Another thing is that within the process of transcription, eukaryotes have pre mRNA that has to go through post transcription modification. This means that introns must be spliced, the poly A tail and the 5 prime cap must be added to the ends. This is because mRNA is unstable as the open backbone of the RNA strand and nucleotides can interact with other molecules in the cytoplasm.

Termination leads to a hair pin like structure of mRNA when it reaches the terminator sequence.

Prokaryotic cells:
termination cleavage utilizes RF1 and RF2

Mitochondria:
termination cleavage utilizes mRF1

Eukaryotic cells:
termination cleavage utilizes eRF1

56
Q

Differences and similarities between DNA replication and Protein synthesis.

A

Similarities:
Both processes utilize DNA.

Both processes rely on the accuracy of complementary bases in order to either create proteins or replicate DNA.

Differences:
DNA replication is used to make copies of DNA and make new cells. Protein synthesis is used to create proteins.

DNA replication utilizes DNA polymerase while Protein Synthesis uses RNA polymerase.

DNA replication only uses deoxyribonucleotides while protein synthesis utilizes ribonucleotides as well. Protein synthesis uses Uracil and DNA uses Thymine.

DNA replication uses the full genome while protein synthesis uses a specific gene of the genome.

Protein synthesis only uses one strand of the DNA double helix while DNA replication uses both.

57
Q

What are some non-coding regions of DNA?

A

introns

telomeres

58
Q

Will mRNA always not have non coding codons?

A

No, mRNA has non-coding codons such as stop codons (UGA, UAG, UAA). These codons signals for the ribosome to stop the synthesis of the polypeptide without producing an amino acid.

59
Q

Post transcriptional modification:

A

This occurs in eukaryotes.

First, the 5prime cap and the Poly A tails will be ended to the ends to keep the mRNA as stable as possible. Then, the spliceosome will come in recognize the splice sites and take out the introns from the pre mRNA by cleaving the phosphodiester bond between the 3prime end of the exons and the five prime end of the introns. Then the exons will join together to form a polypeptide from a gene. The P

60
Q

What are some characteristics of the genetic code?

A

Genetic code is universal

Genetic code is degenerate

Genetic code uses codons

61
Q

What is the importance of base pairing?

A

Base pairing allows for the accurate synthesis of proteins for protein synthesis and for DNA replication, it allows for the accurate passing on of the genome.

Base pairing provides stability for DNA as it is a double helix.

With genetic editing, base pairing can give a clue to errors/ mutations that need to be changed in the DNA.

62
Q

What is a polysome?

A

Polysome is the complex resulting from when there are multiple ribosomes, the mRNA and the polypeptide being made together.

63
Q

Explain why codons have 3 nucleotides

A

1 and 2 nucleotides would not provide enough combinations to allow to make 20 amino acids. Three nucleotides allow for 64 codons to be made which covers the 20 amino acids as well as the stop codons. Also, the use of the third nucleotide is useful as if there is a mutation there, it will be less impactful and usually results in a silent mutation.

64
Q

Explain point mutation using an example

A

Point mutation (sNP) is when there is a deletion, substitution, or insertion of a base pair in the gene. For red blood cells, haemoglobins are made up of beta and alpha haemoglobins. When a base pair is changed in the 11th chromosome, usually from A to T, it results in the formation of a hydrophobic protein that goes to the outer shell of the cell which attracts other haemoglobins and results in the blood clumping.

65
Q

Promoter (TATA) box

A

This region of the gene is non coding, it is only there to tell the transcription factors and the RNA Polymerase where to start transcription.

66
Q

Describe the process of gene expression

A

Transcription and Translation occur.

In transcription there are three phases –> initiation, elongation, and termination.

  • Initiation is when the promoter (TATA box) of the gene is recognized by transcription factors and are attached together. Then RNA polymerase recognizes the promoter of the DNA gene and the transcription factors and attaches to them as well. This forms the initiation complex. Then, the RNA polymerase opens up the double helix DNA creating a bubble. The DNA strands don’t need to be held open by SSB proteins as we only need a certain gene from one strand instead of the whole genome like in DNA replication.

-Elongation: RNA polymerase adds free floating ribonucleotides to create mRNA (prokaryotes) or pre mRNA (eukaryotes).

-Termination
For prokaryotes, the RNA polymerase reaches a termination sequence and the mRNA simply falls out of the DNA strand and goes to the ribosome and straight to translation.

For eukaryotes, the RNA polymerase reaches a termination sequence and post transcription modification must occur. This includes adding the five prime cap and the Poly A tails to the ends to ensure stability. As well as using the splicesome to remove introns while the extrons form the mRNA.

Translation (for both types of organisms):
mRNA goes and attaches to the small subunit of the ribsome and the large subunit comes and creates the complex. The first two tRNAs go through the A site and attach their corresponding anti codons to the codon of the mRNA. These form temporary hydrogen bonds and the amino acids will form peptide bonds in order to create the polypeptide chain. Hence, the tRNA is released into the cytoplasm through the E site. Once a stop codon is reached (UAG, UGA, UAA), the mRNA is cleaved and released. The ribosome and mRNA break down to be recycled.

These polypeptides will go through further modifications in the Golgi Apparatus before it can be used by the organism.

67
Q

What are some disadvantages and advantages of coupled transcription-translation?

A

It is quicker and more efficient leading to a faster synthesis of proteins. This quickness of the production of proteins means prokaryotes are more adaptable to their environment. However, translation of errors in the transcription, hence synthesis of mutations, are more likely to occur.

67
Q

What factors affect Gene expression?

A

Epigenetics and DNA methylation where due to environmental factors, methyl groups can be added to the DNA which either inhibits or promotes the expression of genes as it alters the accessibility of DNA for the transcription machinery.

Transcription factors can permit or inhibit the expression of a certain gene as it binds to a promoter forcing to the RNA polymerase to make mRNA of a specific region of DNA only.

Additionally, histone acetylation adds acetyl to the histone proteins meaning the chromatin structure changes. This can lead to DNA becoming more accessible to transcription machinery. This promotes gene expression.

Genes get activated by diseases or the environment, etc.

68
Q
A

Biology and Economics (4 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions