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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Fragmentation and regeneration

A

First the body is broken into pieces (fragmentation) and these pieces regenerate and grow the lost body parts. This occurs in some annelids, sponges, cnidarians, echinoderms, and tunicates

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2
Q

Budding

A

occurs in some cnidarians. An outgrowth forms (that is a cloned individual) that grows until it is “dropped off”

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3
Q

Gemmule formation

A

Occurs in sponges when a mass of cells is formed that is capable of developing into a new organism or into an adult freshwater sponge

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4
Q

Parthenogenesis

A

embryo develops from an unfertilized egg cell. Ex- Bees, wasps, ants, komodo

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5
Q

Oviparity

A

Laying eggs after fertilization

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6
Q

Ovoviparity

A

Fertilized eggs are retained in the body of the female and the young being nourished by the egg yolk.
Many reptiles

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7
Q

Viviparity

A

Young are nourished by a placenta in the body of the female

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8
Q

Monotremes

A

Mammals that lay eggs

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9
Q

Marsupials

A

Give birth to embryos that complete their development in a pouch

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10
Q

Placental mammals

A

Give birth to young that are more developed

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11
Q

Vas (ductus) deferens

A

Seminal duct ascends along the posterior border of the epididymis and penetrates the inguinal canal and then the pelvic cavity-carries sperm out of testes

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12
Q

Prostate gland

A

Secretes a milky, slightly acidic fluid that contains citrate
* 25% volume of semen

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13
Q

Epididymis (maturation)

A

Transport Sperm
Comma-shaped organ that lies along the posterior border of each testis
and consisting of a tightly coiled ductus epididymis (divided into a head, body, and tail)

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14
Q

Seminal vesicles

A

Secrete an alkaline (for the neutralization of acidic fluids in the female
reproductive tract)

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15
Q

Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) gland

A

Alkaline fluid and mucus that neutralize acids in the
urethra and decrease damage to sperm

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16
Q

Leydig cells

A

secrete testosterone

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17
Q

Fallopian Tubes

A

Transport ova from the ovaries to the uterus- site of fertilization
Tubes extending from upper corners of the uterus to the ovaries- fimbriae at end help capture the releasing egg

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18
Q

What are the basic functions of the circulatory system

A

Transport of necessary materials (O2 and glucose) to and wastes (CO2 and metabolic waste) from the cells of the body

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19
Q

Cnidarians

A

Do not need circulatory system- overall structure like a sponge
cells being close to the outside environment or gastrovascular activity
like sponge- diffusion occurs between the cells and the outside environment or the cells and the gastrovascular cavity

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20
Q

Sponges

A

No need for circulatory system- each cell close to either external environment
Water flowing through a channel in the body or the spongocoel

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21
Q

Flatworms

A

No need for circulatory system- Close to the environment or highly branches intestines indusion is adequate

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22
Q

Nematodes

A

and rotifers are pseudocoelomates that use fluid in the pseudocoelom (cavity derived partially of tissue of mesodermal origin between the gut and the body wall) for circulation

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23
Q

Granulocytes

A

neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils

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24
Q

Agranulocytes

A

Lymphocytes and monocytes

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25
Q

Immunity

A

Lymphocytes

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26
Q

Inflammatory response

A

Eosinophils, basophils

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27
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Neutrophils

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28
Q

Relaxation period

A

Ventricles start to relax; all four chambers are in diastole (the stage of relaxation or dilation of the heart muscle).

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29
Q

Ventricular filling

A

AV valves open and the blood that has flowed into the atria during ventricular contraction-rushes into the ventricles (due to an increase
in pressure in the atria)

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30
Q

SA node fires, which leads to

A

atrial depolarization
During this phase the AV valves are open but both semilunar valves are closed.

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31
Q

Ventricular systole (contraction)-

A

after the impulse passes from the AV node and through the rest of the conduction system

Initiates ventricular depolarization and contraction. The AV valves close and then the semilunar valves open and blood is pushed into the aorta and the pulmonary trunk.

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32
Q

Cardiac excitation

A

begins in the sinoatrial node (SA node)- Right atrial wall- travel through gap junctions of intercalated discs- causing atria R and L to contract simultaneously

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33
Q

Resistance

A

Ability to ward off disease that occurs in both invertebrates and vertebrates

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34
Q

Innate

A

already present as part of body from birth- prevent non-self agent from entering the body

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35
Q

non- specific

A

(act against non-self) cells or other antigens- act quickly in preventing successful invasion of disease-causing organism

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36
Q

Adaptive

A

act against specific intruder that takes a longer time to develop the first time- depending on how long the memory lasts

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37
Q

Specific

A

act against specific intruder that takes a longer time to develop the first time- depending on how long the memory lasts

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38
Q

What is the normal microbiota and what is its role in defense

A

Outcompetes some disease- causing organism by preventing them from colonizing or keeping their number below what is required to cause infection

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39
Q

Humoral

A

Neutralize and eliminate extracellular pathogens and toxins

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40
Q

Cell- mediated Immunity

A

Eliminate intracellular pathogens, infected cells and cancer cells

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41
Q

Phloem anatomy and physiology

A

Living cells (sieve tube) with sieve plates

Transport organic nutrient bidirectionally using pressure- flow mechanisms

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42
Q

Xylem anatomy and physiology

A

Dead cells (tracheids and vessel elements) thick, lignified walls

Transport water and minerals unidirectionally from roots to leaves using cohesion- tension mechanism

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43
Q

Innate immunity

A

Phagocytes- neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells- engulf and destroy pathogens through phagocytosis
Natural killer cells- recognize and destroy infected cells and cancer cells

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44
Q

Inflammation

A

Response to tissue damage or infection- increase blood flow to infected area, swelling, heat, recruitment of immune cells to site of injury or infection- contains pathogens, remove damaged cells and debris, initiate tissue repair processes

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45
Q

Adaptive immunity

A

Highly specific- target pathogen or antigen
Memory- immunological memory- stronger response upon re- exposure to the same pathogen

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46
Q

Components antibody mediate immunity

A
  • B cells
  • Antibodies
  • Memory B cells
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47
Q

Components antibody mediate immunity

A
  • T cells
  • Helper T cells
  • Cytotoxic T cells
  • Regulatory T cells
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48
Q

Accessory organs of digestion

A

Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas, Salivary Glands, Tongue

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49
Q

Organs of digestion

A

Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Small intestine, Large intestine, Liver, Pancreas

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50
Q

What two systems are involved in regulation and coordination?

A

Nervous and Endocrine System

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51
Q

P wave

A

Atrial Depolarization
Contraction

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52
Q

QRS

A

Ventricular Depolarization
Contraction

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53
Q

T wave

A

Ventricular Repolarization
Restore Membrane Potential

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54
Q

Chemotaxis

A

colony stimulating factors increase production and differentiation of white blood cells

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55
Q

Interferons

A

act against viruses

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56
Q

Interleukins- diverse functions-

A

tumor necrosis assist in inflammation and apoptosis

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57
Q

Surface receptors

A

bind specific compounds called ligands and trigger responses like chemotaxis

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58
Q

Chemicals

A

cytokines one cell diffuse onto another cell triggering a change in the receiving cells resulting in chemotaxis

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59
Q

Lymphocytes- T and B

A

Central players in adaptive immunity

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60
Q

Antigen presenting cells

A

macrophages, B cells, Dendritic cells

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61
Q

Dendritic cells

A

Initiating and regulating adaptive immune response by capturing, processing and presenting antigens to T cells

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62
Q

Molecules and Receptors

A

Major Histocompatibility complex (MHC), Antibodies, T Cell receptors

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63
Q

Cytokines

A

regulate immunity, inflammation and hematopoiesis

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64
Q

Chlorophyll

A

Vascular (conducting) tissue in a plant that transports organic materials such as glucose

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65
Q

Phloem

A

Opening in the lower surface of leaf that allows gases (O2 and CO2) in and out of leaf

66
Q

Stomata

A

Pigment in plants necessary for photosynthesis

67
Q

Xylem

A

Waxy layer that protect a leaf from dehydration (drying out)

68
Q

Chloroplast

A

The layer of tissue in a leaf where most photosynthesis takes place

69
Q

Guard cells

A

Conducting tissues in a plant that transport water and nutrients

70
Q

Palisade

A

Layer of tissue in a leaf that provides support

71
Q

Cuticle

A

Lower skin of a leaf

72
Q

Spongy mesophyll

A

Organelle in a plant cell that contains chlorophyll

73
Q

Lower epidermis

A

Pairs of cells responsible for opening and closing stomata

74
Q

Upper epidermis

A

Upper skin of a leaf

75
Q

Light dependent reactions

A

convert light energy into chemical energy producing ATP and NADPH and O2 released as byproduct

76
Q

Light independent reactions (Calvin cycle)

A

occur in stroma and use ATP and NADPH to fix CO2 into G3P, used to form glucose and regenerate RuBP

77
Q

Erosion

A

Soil and rock being moved from one place to another from water, wind, ice, gravity

78
Q

Desertification

A

Land becoming degraded, forming desert- like conditions

79
Q

Farmland conversion

A

Converting agricultural land into non- agricultural. Urban development, infrastructure projects, industrial facilities

80
Q

Greater the Po2

A

O2 will bind

81
Q

Po2 decrease

A

Bonds between iron and o2 break releasing O2

82
Q

Hemizygous males only have

A

one sex chromosome
Also interesting reproductive system that occurs in grasshoppers, crickets, and many other males

83
Q

What is the animal that alternates between sexual and asexual reproduction

A

Pea aphids

84
Q

Asexual reproduction does not produce

A

Genetic variation
More advantageous in non- changing environments

85
Q

Sexual reproduction

A

Advantageous in changing environments

86
Q

Sequential Hermaphrodite

A

Organism with both. male and female sex organs maturing at different times
ex- fish, gastropods, flowering plants

87
Q

Where does sexual reproduction in vertebrates occur

A

In the ocean- keeps gametes moist does not require simultaneous release of gametes by male and female

88
Q

External fertilization

A

shedding of gametes outside of body
absence of copulatory structures or other specialized structures for internal fertilization
occur outside of body
occurs in many aquatic animals
many fish, most amphibians, sea urchins,

89
Q

Internal fertilization

A

involves copulatory structures
hemipenes of lizards and snaked
specialized structures- spermatophires
Positioning of cloacas next to each other- birds

90
Q

Seminiferous tubules (sustentacular cells)

A

extend from the basement membrane to the lumen of tubule
Spaces between adjacent seminiferous tubules are clusters of interstitial endocrinocytes of Leydig cells- secrete testosterone

91
Q

Corpus luteum

A

ramnant of an ovulated mature follicle- produces progesterone, estrogens, relaxin, inhibit until it degenerates into a corpus albicans

92
Q

Innermost layers of granulosa called

A

Corona radiata

93
Q

Invertebrate circulation

A

Size, shape, complexity, level of activity play are important factors for the movement of materials to and from the environment within an animals body

94
Q

Open circulation

A

no distinction between the circulating fluid and the body fluids or intertitial fluids- together termed hemolymph- move through sinuses and is pumped by one or more hearts
Found in anthropods, most mollusks

95
Q

Closed circulatory system

A

fluid (blood) is enclosed within blood vessels and is separated from the rest of the body’s fluids
Found in annelids, vertebrates and cephalopods

96
Q

Where are platelets found

A

Within the matrix

97
Q

What are the functions of blood

A

transportation of gases, nutrients, and wastes
Regulation of various body functions via hormones and thermoregulation
Protection from disease causing organism- toxins, tears, or breaks in the blood vessels

98
Q

Fish blood

A

Fewer red blood cells lower hematocrit
RBC- nucleated and function in immunity
WBC- heterophil equivalent to a neutrophil and platelets

99
Q

Amphibian blood

A

Include nucleated RBCs
Reptiles have WBCs- unique, large azurophils. Modified monocytes along with heterophils

100
Q

Bird lack what type of blood

A

Azurophils

101
Q

Some mammals have heterophils and a few

A

Nucleated RBCs- camels

102
Q

Humans and most mammals RBCs are

A

anucleated appear as biconcave disks

103
Q

WBCs function

A

immunity, (lymphocytes), inflammatory response (eosinophils, basophils, phagocytosis (neutrophils)

104
Q

Platelets are

A

Cellular fragments- complex clotting mechanism

105
Q

Heart of fish have

A

One- cycle chamber
Heart is tube
Four chambers arranged sequentially
First two chambers (sinus venosus and atrium) - collection chambers
Second two- ventricle and conus arteriosus- pumping chambers
No pulmonary circulation- only systemic circulation

106
Q

Heart of amphibians have

A

Pulmonary and systemic circulation- gas exchange across skin
Two atria
One ventricle
Reptiles- pulmonary circulation and systemic
Two atria
One ventricle with partial septum

107
Q

Aquatic turtles have

A

cutaneous gas exchange- two circulatory systems- pulmonary and systemic

108
Q

Heart of birds, mammals, crocodiles have

A

True two cycle pump, pulmonary and systemic circulation
Two atria and two ventricles

109
Q

Exchange of materials between the blood in the capillaries and surrounding tissues occur

A

Primarily due to diffusion, endocytosis, exocytosis, bulk flow through clefts between adjoining cells due to pressure

110
Q

Gas exchange involves

A

Diffusion across membranes- surface must be moist

111
Q

What does passive transport not require

A

does not require an energy expenditure- instead of concentration, (partial) pressure important component in diffusion of gases

112
Q

Pressure value of gas

A

Allows one to predict the net movement of that gas at a surface where gas exchange can occur

113
Q

Partial pressure of O2 at sea levels

A

Multiplying the atmospheric pressure (760mmHg X % of O2 in atmosphere)

Partial pressure at sea level- 160 m Hg
Partial pressure CO2 at sea level- 0.29mm Hg

114
Q

Higher the temp

A

Lower dissolved oxygen

115
Q

Aquatic animals and oxygen

A

Aquatic organism that are mobile need to move around to find area with an adequate amount of oxygen for their need- more energy for them to acquire O2 for cellular respiration

116
Q

Gas exchange where cutaneous gas exchange occurs over the entire surface of the animal

A

Sponges, cnidarians, flatworms- gases can be exchanged ver the surface of the cells readily

117
Q

Integumentary exchange

A

Gas exchange through the skin, do not require circulatory systems to provide O2 to and take CO2 away from the cels of their bodies- skin must be moist- appropriate high surface to volume ratio for adequate moisture to occur
ex- Ologochaeteworms, Lungless Salamanders

118
Q

Limited cutaneous exchange

A

Aquatic turtles gas exchange across moist epithelial surfaces continuous with their mouth and anus

119
Q

Tracheal respiration

A

Movement of gas through branched openings with diffusion occurring at the tips of these opening
Most common mechanism for gas exchange in air breathing- terrestrial antropods

120
Q

Gills are

A

Localized respiratory organ- efficient circulatory system to deliver of oxygen throughout body

121
Q

Positive or negative breathing do amphibians use

A

Positive pressure- inflation of lungs due to forced air flow

122
Q

Airflow of birds

A

Flow of air- unidirectional outgoing and incoming air do not mix
Have anterior and posterior air sacs and parabronchi
Highly efficient flow through system

123
Q

Respiration definition

A

exchange of gases between the atmosphere

124
Q

Pharynx

A

entrance to the trachea

125
Q

Trachea

A

Passageway of air to and from the lungs

126
Q

Bronchus

A

Airways leading into the lungs that branch

127
Q

External pulmonary ventilation

A

exchange of gases between the alveoli of the lungs and blood of the capillaries gains O2 and loses CO2
Does not require energy

128
Q

Oxygen from the air within the alveoli will enter

A

Blood when partial pressure of the deoxygenated blood is lower than the pCO2 of the air in the alveoli

129
Q

pCO2 of blood arriving from the heart to the lungs is

A

Higher than the pCO2 of the air results in CO2 moving out of the blood and into the alveoli

130
Q

Resistance

A

Ability to ward off disease that occurs in both invertebrates and vertebrates

131
Q

Innate

A

already present in body- usually non- specific (act against non- self) from entering the body

Recognition of non- self

132
Q

Adaptive

A

Developing over- time and specific takes longer time to develop

133
Q

What does Chitin do?

A

Lines the digestive system of insects

134
Q

What does the Major Histocompatibility Complex found on a body’s cell membrane act as

A

Name tag

135
Q

In invertebrates the immune cells are called

A

Hemocytes (phagocytes)- circulate through the hemolymph
Some hemocytes produces and release chemical including antimicrobial peptides that either kill or inactivate pathogens- others attack double stranded RNA

136
Q

Immune response in insects

A

Binding of immune cells activates transmembrane Toll receptors- results in the production and secretion of defensive proteins that at against pathogens

137
Q

Immune cells of vertebrates include

A

Granulocytes- white blood cells- neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, mononuclear phagocytes (blood monocytes and in tissues, macrophages) and dendritic cells develop from monocytes and the various lymphocytes

138
Q

What roles do basophils play

A

Allergic reactions and inflammation due to histamine and other chemicals found in their granules- histamine increasing capillary permeability- involved in inflammation

139
Q

What roles do Eosinophils play

A

Involved in parasitic infections and allergies

140
Q

What are mononuclear phagocytes in blood called

A

Monocytes- in tissues differentiate into macrophages
Phagocytic cells that do not contain granules

141
Q

What are dendritic cells

A

Sentinel cells- most of them developing from monocytes
Phagocytes- present potential antigens to cells of the adaptive response or third line of defense

142
Q

Cytokines

A

From one cell diffuse into another cell triggering a change in the receiving cell resulting into chemotaxis- colony stimulating factors increase production and differentiation of white blood cells

143
Q

Interleukins

A

Diverse functions, tumor necrosis factor, multiple functions, chemicals that assist in inflammation and apoptosis

144
Q

What does the complete system consist of

A

Proteins that participate in lysis, inflammation, opsonization (process that prepares materials for phagocytosis) and phagocytosis- assists in specific immunity

145
Q

What is the lymphatic system involved in

A

Both specific and nonspecific defenses- filters out microbes from tissue fluids and the lymph nodes contain phagocytes and lymphocytes

146
Q

What roles do immunoglobulins play

A

Protein that play roles in destruction of the antigens
Antibodies- produced by plasma or Effect B cells- part of the Humoral or Antibody- Mediated Components of the Adaptive and Specific Immunity

147
Q

What is the third line of defense

A

Self- tolerance
Critical so line of defense so that the cells and antibodies of the immune system do not attack and destroy the body’s own cells

148
Q

What is the secondary response

A

Faster, greater in amplitude than the primary response- involve memory cells

149
Q

Neutralization role in antibodies

A

Antigen is coated with antibodies cannot attach to the cells

150
Q

What is opsonization in antibodies

A

Coated with antigens that are more easily consumed by phagocytic cells

151
Q

Compliment system

A

Activated by antigen antibody complexes
Preventing adherence by binding pili
Cross-linking produces large antigen- antibody complexes that are consumed by phagocytic cells

152
Q

T helpers

A

release compounds that attract phagocytic cells to inflamed tissues

153
Q

Cytotoxic T cells

A

Recognize and bind to the surface of “altered” cells virally infected cells or cancerous cells and release a protein (perforin) destroys the cell

154
Q

Regulatory T cells

A

Stop immune system from overreacting

155
Q

Killed, whole vaccines

A

Made from the entire pathogen after treating the organisms with formalin, radiation, or some other agent that does not destroy antigenicity- rabies, pertussis, polio

156
Q

Live attenuated vaccines

A

Eliminating the virulence factors from the microbes- measles, mumps, TB

157
Q

Sun unit or cell free vaccines

A

Prepared from portions of he microbes that result antigenicity

158
Q

What does clonal selection apply to

A

both B and T lymphocytes process where a lymphocytes antigen binding site binds to an antigen allowing for the lymphocyte to proliferate and differentiate into Effector Cells and Memory Cells

Once B cell activated can proliferate and produce millions of progeny- short- term plasma cells

159
Q

Helper T cells

A

Involved in specific immunity, participate in the activation of B cells and release compounds tat attract phagocytic cells to inflamed tissues

160
Q

Activation

A

Naive cells activated directly by pathogens of Antigen Presenting Cells
Naive Helper T cells activated by antigen presenting cells- active or effector T cells promote activate of naive Cytotoxic T or B cells

Final Bio 223 (1 decks)

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