Stress as psychobiological process Flashcards
1
Q
What is stress
A
a state of psychological and physiological arousal produced by internal or external stressors that are perceived by the individual as challenging or exceeding their ability or resources to cope.
2
Q
what is a stressor
A
person, situation or event that produces stress
3
Q
why is stress subjective
A
influenced by our personality and past experiences and depends on personal interpretation of a situation or event.
4
Q
two types of stressors
A
internal and external
5
Q
what is an internal stressor
A
originates within the individual
-lack of sleep, injury
6
Q
what is an external stressor
A
originates outside the individual
-bills, employment, homework
7
Q
why is stress psychobiological
A
psychological- initial mental processes involved in perception/interpretation of the stressor
biological- activation of ANS which trigger physiological responses.
8
Q
3 types of physiological responses to stress
A
cognitive, behavioural and emotional
9
Q
physical responses to stress
A
increase blood pressure increase heart rate palpitations headache nausea difficulty breathing fatigue dizziness
10
Q
cognitive responses to stress (5)
A
loss of self-confidence exaggerated perceptions catastrophising disturbed thinking negative perceptions of oneself/environment impaired mental ability (concentration) forgetfulness
11
Q
emotional/affective responses to stress
A
anxiety/tension anger/irritability feeling hopelessness feeling overwhelmed negative attitude to schoolwork depression
12
Q
behavioural responses to stress
A
stuttering/shaky voice changes in appetite nightmares/sleep disturbances stopping going to school use of alcohol/drugs changes in activity levels nervous mannerisms (teeth grinding, nail-biting)
13
Q
two types of stress response
A
Eustress and distress
14
Q
Eustress
A
seen as desirable and is characterised by positive psychological states- enthusiasm, excitement and alertness e.g first date, important birthday
15
Q
distress
A
seen as undesirable and is characterised by negative psychological states- irritability, anxiety and nervousness
e.g death, relationship issues, bad grades
16
Q
sources of stress
A
daily pressures, life events, acculturative stress, major stressors and catastrophes
17
Q
daily pressures
A
minor troubles/concerns that arise in a day-to-day living
add up as they pile on- the cumulative effect
a strong predictor of both physical and psychological wellbeing
more hassles- more symptoms of physical and mental health problems
significant individual differences
18
Q
examples of daily pressures
A
fighting with friends losing important items time pressures excess noise car breakdown lack of sleep problems with relatives traffic jams
19
Q
life events
A
significant life events which involve change that forces us to adapt to new circumstances.
typically have immediate consequences and require long term adjustments
20
Q
Social Readjustment Rating Scale
A
Holmes and Rahe 1967, SRRS
used to measure stress in terms of life events.
any event that requires an individual to adjust their lifestyle, thus ways of thinking, feeling and behaving would cause stress in varying amounts, depending on event and level of readjustment
43 positive/negative critical life events
each life event assigned a numerical value- life change units- 100 for most stressful to 11- an event causing least stress
found 200 LCU within 12 month period- make people more prone to physical and psychological illnesses or diseases
death of a marital partner is one of the most stressful types of life events for any individual
21
Q
Strengths of SRRS
A
- involved various ages and socio-cultural backgrounds to rate the impact of various life changes
- considerable empirical research supporting the link between negative life events and stress-related illness
22
Q
criticism of SRRS
A
- impact of any Holmes-Rahe life event, is based on the individual/the interpretation of the stressor and coping mechanisms
- different events have different meanings for different people- getting divorced is less stressful for those in a toxic relationship
- negative life events- stress-related disorders
- no link between positive life events that create eustress as being similarly harmful
- numerical values given to each of the life events are arbitrary, too difficult to allocate a definitive numerical value
23
Q
Acculturative Stress
A
- the demands of adjusting to a new culture
- arises as immigrants adapt to the changes in values, customs and language preferences of the new dominant culture
24
Q
Symptoms of acculturative stress
A
language difficulties racial and ethnic prejudice lower socioeconomic status separation from family conflicts over values/beliefs assimilation mistreatment of loved ones back home
25
what reduces acculturative stress
when new society accepts ethnic and cultural diversity
when a person becomes familiar with a new language and customs
provided with education, social support from friends, relatives and organisations of same cultural group
individuals attitudes
26
major stressors
extraordinarily stressful or disturbing for almost everyone who experiences it
can be a single one-off event, or ongoing, unrelenting such as a terminal illness
the event does not have to be directly experienced
individuals exposed to extreme stressors were susceptible to PTSD
individuals perceive this as so stressful due to low self-efficacy
27
three groups who can suffer stress after a major disaster
the witness of the event, those who were affected by the disaster but not present, those who were part of the rescue team who dealt directly with the devastation
28
examples of major stressors
acts of violence such as armed robbery
natural disasters such as bushfires
interpersonal violence- rape, child abuse, suicide
involvement in a serious motor accident
29
symptoms of major stressors
physical- hypervigilance, fatigue, disturbed sleep, general aches
cognitive- intrusive thoughts, recurring memories of the event, visual images of the events, nightmares, poor concentration and memory
behavioural- avoidance of places and activities that are reminders of the event, social withdrawal and isolation, loss of interest in activities
emotional- fear, numbness and detachment, depression, guilt, anger and irritability
30
Catastrophes
an unpredictable event that causes widespread damage or suffering stressor of mass proportion- occurs suddenly, affects many people and is out of their control (lack of self-efficacy)
natural disasters- people accept they had no control over the situation
technological disaster- attributed to people e.g radiation, aviation accidents, oil spills, toxic waste release
technological disasters have longer-lasting effects than natural disasters
both lead to long-term activation of the flight-fight freeze response
31
two models for describing physiological stress response
Fight-flight-freeze response
Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome
-both describe patterns of involuntary biological processes that occur in response to stressor- occur the same way in all individuals
32
Fight-flight-freeze response
involuntary, physical response to a sudden and immediate threat in readiness to:
fight-confronting and fighting off the threat
flight- escaping by running away to safety
freeze- keeping absolutely silent and still
-controlled by sympathetic NS
-innate and evolutionary phenomenon that is critical for survival- adaptive response because gives greater survival chance
33
fight-flight reactions
when threat is perceived, a signal sent to the hypothalamus via amygdala
responds by activating sympathetic NS in less than 1/20th of a second
sympathetic NS stimulates the adrenal medulla (inner adrenal gland)
adrenal glands secrete catecholamines into the bloodstream (including adrenaline and noradrenaline)
'stress hormones' circulate bloodstream, activating various organs (lungs, heart, liver) resulting in bodily changes of flight fight response
adrenaline and noradrenaline also occur as neurotransmitters, may be released by neurons to have excitatory effect
thus fight flight reaction allows fight harder, run faster, see better and breathe easier than if it didn't happen
once stressor is removed, parasympathetic NS dominates, decreasing bodily arousal, level of adrenaline and noradrenaline falls to pre-threat level- reverses physiological effects
fight flight is initiated in brain- arouses and energies body to deal with immediate threat
pathway of fight flight- sympathetic adreno-medullary system (SAM)
34
comparison of parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system
sympathetic acts like accelerator pedal, giving burst of energy by triggering fight-flight reaction
parasympathetic acts as brake, slowing the body after danger has passed.
35
freeze reactions
characterised by an inability to move or act
body movements/vocals stops, heart rate/blood pressure drops quickly
often immobility and reflexive orienting response of head and eyes towards direction of the threat
also hypervigilance- extreme alertness
apparent frozen bodily state- tonic immobility
frozen state conserves energy and increases chances of escape
36
biological process of freeze reactions
believed that sympathetic nervous system activations always precedes freeze state and becomes part of it.
when activated, the energy-conserving rest/relaxation actions of parasympathetic NS dominate over existing sympathetic NS effects- leaves organism in physiological state of high arousal of both para/sympathetic NS- energy conserving/mobilised state ready for action
having one foot on accelerator and one foot on brake at the same time
37
role of cortisol
used for prolonged exposure to stressors
cortisol levels increase when stressor is present
increase causes chain physiological response to stress via HPA axis (hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal gland)- takes longer to exert its effect but persists for much longer
released into the bloodstream to maintain blood-glucose levels-gives body energy
during prolonged stress, suppresses immune system due to anti-inflammatory effects by blocking WBC activity- targets essential bodily resources to ensure fight-flgiht-freeze reactions
retards tissue repair
when stress is removed, acetylcholine is released and stress hormone levels decrease
prolonged activation of stress response systems harm physical and mental health- depression, PTSD, impaired memory linked to too high levels of cortisol
38
Three stages of GAS
alarm reaction stage (shock and countershock)
stage of resistance
stage of exhaustion
non-specific- occurs whatever the source of stress
39
Stage 1: Alarm reaction (shock)
- occurs when person becomes aware of stressor and body goes into shock
- ability to deal with stressor- below normal level
- body temp/blood pressure drop and temporary muscle tone loss
e. g fainting heart attack
40
Alarm reaction (countershock)
- symp NS activated
- resistance to stressor increases
- fight-flight-freeze response
- adrenaline released into bloodstream- become highly aroused and alert
- general defensive reaction- state of tension and alertness and readiness to respond to stressor
e. g heightened arousal
41
resistance stage
resistance to stressor rises above normal
intense arousal diminishes but physiological arousal remains above normal
unnecessary physiological processes shut down e.g sex drive, sperm production, digestion, growth
cortisol released into bloodstream to further energise body
if effort to deal with stressor is successful, organism adapts to stressor and body returns to homeostatic state
e.g cortisol weakens immune sytem- inhibiyd ability to fight disease
increases in social withdrawal
42
exhaustion stage
-enters exhaustion if resistance stage is unsuccessful
some alarm reactions may reappear, but body cant sustain resistance, so effects of stressor are unable to be dealt with
resources are depleted, disease resistance is low, increase vulnerability to physical and mental disorders
-brings about physical signs of wear and tear- attributable to immune-suppression and higher levels of cortisol
e.g extreme fatigue, depression, nightmares
physical disorders- heart disease, hypertension
can be fatal
43
evaluation of GAS model
pros
-rich info about physiological processes
-has provided laboratory/empirical evidence for role of the brain, endocrine system and PNS
-strong establishment between extreme stress and certain diseases
limitations
-overlooks psychological response to different types of stressors, doesn't take into account cognitive aspects of stress response, specifically role of brain in interpreting situation
-overemphasis on biological processes- one size fits all model, assuming everyone has same, general and predictable and automatic physiological responses- lacking individual differences in physiological stress responses
-model based on research on lab rats- a limited model that can be applied to humans, rats responses are less complicated than humans- lacking generalizability
-no consideration of psychological and environmental factors such as emotions and cognitions in stress responses
-not all humans experience the same physiological stress responses
44
psychological model of stress
Lazarus and Folkman's transactional model of stress and coping
45
transactional model of stress and coping
- proposes stress involves an encounter (transaction) between individual/environment, and that stress response depends upon interpretation (appraisal) of stressor and ability to cope with it
- appraisal is always subjective and therefore highly personal
46
two types of appraisal
primary and secondary appraisal
47
primary appraisal
evaluate the significance of the event- decides if event is irrelevant, benign-positive or stressful
-if decided stressful, engage in additional primary appraisals, deciding if situation is harm threat or challenging
harm/loss- an assessment of how much damage has already occurred
threat- assessment of harm/loss that hasn't occurred yet but could in the future
challenge- assessment of potential for personal growth or gain
48
secondary appraisal
evaluate our coping options and resources
coping- can be internal or external
if coping demands are perceived as much greater than available resources, likely to experience stress response
-discrepancy perceived may trigger search for additional resources to cope
49
types of coping strategies
problem focussed and emotion focussed strategies
| dynamic adaptive processes
50
problem focussed coping
deal with stressor by managing or changing it
used when there is high self-efficacy ( control of situation)
e.g reappraising stressor- examine from new perspectives
obtaining more info about the stressor
redefining stressor into something more manageable
51
emotion focussed coping
control our emotional responses to stressor rather than changing/managing the stressor
e.g venting, meditation, denial, avoidance
used when there is low self-efficacy
involves trying to reduce negative feelings associated with stressor
52
evaluation of transactional model
pros
- focuses on psychological determinants of stress response which we have control, as stress is interaction between environment and individual, in which individual plays an active role
-emphasises personal nature and unique perception/appraisal- explains different responses of individuals
-stressors and circumstances can change over time
-allows for reappraisal and changed response
-led to many ways to deal with stressors
cons
-may not always be conscious of all factors causing stress
-overlooks physiological responses and is more difficult to test than GAS- due to the subjective nature
-doesnt allow for individual variation in progression through stages- primary and secondary appraisals occur simultaneously, thus difficult to isolate
-doubt that we need to appraise something as causing stress
53
what is coping
process of constantly changing emotional, cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific internal and/or external stressors that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the person's resources.
54
what is a coping strategy
specific method, behavioural or psychological , that people use manage or reduce the stress produced by a stressor
55
how can the effectiveness of coping strategy be influenced
context-specific effectiveness- demands of the situations
| coping flexibility-ability to adapt and modify the strategy
56
context-specific effectiveness
Extent to which an individual’s selected strategy/coping mechanism to deal with the effects of a stressor is appropriate for the specified context of the stressor
-depends on previous experience and whether previous strategies were successful
-considers situational determinants of coping effectiveness
effective strategy- take account of all characteristics of stressful situation- physical environment, stressor and individual involved
-there is match between coping strategy, specific situational demands and personal characteristics
57
coping flexibility
individuals ability to effectively adapt to the demands of situation/stressor
-may need to alternate between emotion/problem-focused strategies that deal with specific stressor's demands
- able to recognise whether flexible coping approach is appropriate for specific situation
-able to select a coping strategy that suits situation
- recognise when coping strategy used is ineffective
-discontinue an ineffective strategy
-implement alternate coping strategy
considered adaptive personality attribute
58
exercise as a coping strategy
physical activity that is usually planned and performed to improve or maintain your physical condition
-regular aerobic exercise (increased heart rate and oxygen consumption) reduces reactivity of sympathetic NS and HPA axis response to stressors
-beta-endorphins produced during physical activity along with dopamine/serotonin, improve mood and give a sense of euphoria
uses and reduces cortisol
benefits
uses up stress hormones
increases cardiovascular efficiency
short term psychological benefits during exercise
releases chemicals that improve psychological health
59
types of strategies of coping with stress
avoidance and approach strategies
approach- confronting the stressor directly
avoidance- involve evading a stressor and dealing with it indirectly
avoidance inhibit development of more effective cognitive strategies to deal with long-term situations, they show more phsyiological responses and experience lower stress levels
60
approach strategies
- confront a stressor and deal directly with it and its effects
- activity focussed towards the stressor, its causes and solution that addresses the underlying problem, minimise and eliminate the impact
- engages with the stressor
61
avioidant strategies
evade a stressor and indirectly with it and its effects
activity focussed away from stressor, no attempt to actively confront stressor and its causes
-strategies of emotional and behavioural disengagement
62
evaluation of approach strategies
more adaptive and effective by managing stressor's source
less psychological, physiological symptoms- function more effectively
increases feelings of controls by acquiring autonomous skills to deal with stressor
limitation:
not appropriate when we have many stressors to deal with- might need to avoid some to deal with others
disengagement strategies reduce stress when nothing can be done
63
evaluation of avoidance stratgeies
pros
useful short term- helps put stressors on hold to deal with others
helps avoid thinking of things that cant be dealt with
cons
tend to be maladaptive
excessive reliance associated with number of negative consequences e.g mental health problems
long term use prevents people from responding to stressors in constructive ways
