Stress, Anxiety And Emotion

Question 1

When does stress exist?

Answer 1

Stress exists when there is a mismatch between perceived demands and perceived coping ability. It can be energising, but long-term chronic stress can also lead to psychological and physiological problems.

Question 2

What plays a central role in the physiological response to stressors?

Answer 2

The adrenal gland plays a central role in the physiological response to stressors. The adrenal cortex releases corticosteroids in response to the hormone ACTH which is secreted from the pituitary gland. As the pituitary is in turn controlled by the hypothalamus, this chain is known as the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Question 3

What happens in stressful situations?

Answer 3

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) activates the adrenal medulla, which releases adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream.

Question 4

What produces general ANS activation ?

Answer 4

General ANS activation and the release of hormones from the adrenal gland produces a pattern of peripheral arousal in the body. If the stressor is short- lasting , the arousal fades away; it’s basic purpose is to supply the energy needs involved in behavioural coping responses.

Question 5

What did Selye identify?

Answer 5

Selye identified the General Adaption Syndrome. Physiological stress response go though stages of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion when confronted by chronic stressful situations.

Question 6

What can lead to psychosomatic disorders?

Answer 6

Coping responses to modern stressors do not always involve physical activity, and the physiological arousal found in these situations therefore becomes maladaptive and can lead to psychosomatic disorders.

Question 7

What did the work of Brady and Weiss with animals show?

Answer 7

The work of Brady and Weisswith animals has shown that physical reactions to stressors are influenced by individual differences and by feedback on successful coping behaviour.

Question 8

What did Frankenhauser demonstrate?

Answer 8

Frankenhauser (1832-1894) demonstrated that adrenaline release is sensitive to any arousing stimulation. Males show a more vigorous adrenaline release than females in stressful situations, although this may not apply to females in non-sex role stereotyped roles.

Question 9

Who is especially vulnerable to heart disease?

Answer 9

Theres evidence that the type A personality (being dominated by feelings of time pressure and competitiveness) is more vulnerable to heart disease, although negative findings have been reported. It may be that high levels of anger and hostility are also critical variables.

Question 10

What are systematic strategies for coping with stress?

Answer 10

Systematic strategies for cling with stress range from psychotherapy and cognitive therapy, through relaxation and biofeedback, to skills training and drugs. Modifications to the physical environment and changes in work practices can also be effective.

Question 11

What do drugs used in the treatment of anxiety do?

Answer 11

Drugs used to treat anxiety appear to stimulate a specific receptor in the brain, and it may be that specific neurotransmitter pathways are involved in reactions to anxiety and stress. However, they have not yet been identified.

Question 12

How could emotion be defined?

Answer 12

Emotion has proved a difficult concept to define, although all would agree that it involves subjective feelings, cognitive appraisals, characteristic behaviour, and sometimes peripheral arousal.

Question 13

The study of the brain mechanisms of emotion has largely involved aggression and fearful behaviour in animals. What are the conclusions?

Answer 13

It is clear that structures of the limbic system play a major role in aggression and fearful behaviour, and the Papez-MacLean limbic model of emotion has been popular for years.

Question 14

What is the frontal lobotomy?

Answer 14

The frontal lobotomy, used as a treatment for schizophrenia before drugs became available, was an example of psychosurgery, supposedly based on animal research on the brain and emotion. It was not effective against the symptoms of schizophrenia, and virtually disappeared once drugs came into use.

Question 15

Who was William James?

Answer 15

William James was the first to produce a general model of emotions. He proposed that the peripheral physiological arousal produced by the perception of an object or an event and the behavioural response to it were in turn interpreted by the brain as emotional feeling. We are afraid because we run, we do not run because we are afraid.

Question 16

What did Cannon do?

Answer 16

Cannon produced a list of criticisms of James’ model, and suggested instead that emotional behaviour and experience were both produced in the brain. Peripheral arousal was irrelevant.

Question 17

What did Schachter and Singer do?

Answer 17

In a famous study, Schachter and Singer used injections of adrenaline to produce peripheral physiological arousal, and tried to manipulate the emotion experienced by modifying the cognitive environment. They concluded that emotions are produced by a combination of non-specific arousal and cognitive evaluation of the environment.

Question 18

What happened after Schachter’s and Singer’s famous study (injecting adrenaline to produce peripheral physiological arousal and try to manipulate the emotion experienced by modifying the cognitive environment)?

Answer 18

Their findings have been criticised, and replications have not been generally successful. It now seems clear that peripheral arousal is not essential to all emotions, but that cognitive processes such as perception, attention, memory, and high-level evaluation are central to emotional states.

Question 19

Why is the field of emotion likely to remain very fragmented?

Answer 19

There are currently at least 30 models of the links between the brain, cognition, peripheral arousal, and emotion. Until we have an agreed psychological definition of emotion, the field is likely to remain very fragmented.