Stress and Development Flashcards
What is the normal cortisol response that everybody has?
-cortisol is flat for a good part of the night cortisol rises slowly and then spikes when we wake up
-goes up throughout the day depending on different factors: what we eat; then goes back down for sleep
-for children there are 2 peaks, nto related to time of day or sleep (they’re sleeping all the time
What is the cortisol response in infants?
-newborns exhibit two peaks in daily cortisol production not correlated with time of day.
-by 3 months, salivary cortisol levels are significantly higher within 30 minutes of waking compared to 30 minutes before bedtime.
-cortisol levels drop during pre-school nap/rest time and rebound upon waking.
-duration of nap time is negatively correlated with age but positively correlated with the strength of the decrease in cortisol from morning to afternoon
[critical period of development so there is more cortisol for growth]
What are 3 studies that looked at cortisol during stress in infants?
-Larson et al. (1991): lowered cortisol levels in laboratory settings as compared to home
-Hertsgaard et al. (1992): lowered cortisol levels in novel situations; lowest levels in infants with greater positive affect and actively engaged in the situation.
-Bernard, K., & Dozier, M. (2010): this effect is no longer seen in children as they get older; starting from a lowered baseline might serve as a protective factor for the developing child
What are some stressors in infancy?
-Parental Stressors: neglect, abuse, parental mental health, insecure attachment
-Environmental Stressors: institutions/orphanages
-Traumatic Events/Experiences: loss of a caregiver, child Holocaust survivors
[most common source of stress for infants are their parents]
What are some stats and risk factors for child maltreatment in the U.S.?
-roughly 905,000 U.S. children were abused or neglected in 2006
-in 2005, CDC estimated that approximately 1 in 7 children has been maltreated
-in 2006, 11% of the victims reported to State Child Welfare agencies were under the age of 12 months
-maltreatment rates are highest during infancy and adolescence
-maltreatment is also linked with poverty and its associated burdens: single parenthood, social isolation, unemployment, poor education, etc.
What are the 2 types of consequences of Parental Stressors?
-proximal: failure to thrive (FTT)
-distal
What is the main proximal consequence of parental stressors?
Failure to Thrive (FTT)
-growth process is disrupted by psychological mechanisms with the parent-child relationship playing a central role
-height and weight are below the fifth percentile for age and gender
-deficiencies in terms of social responsiveness
What are the distal consequences of parental stressors?
-maltreatment can impair brain development and regulatory functioning
-later in childhood it can lead to disruptive behaviors and school performance problems
-in adolescence and adulthood, it can cause depression and increase the likelihood to become substance abusers
What are the environmental stressors found in the adoption study?
-Attachment: adopted children were less secure in their attachment relationships
-Cognition: between-group differences observed in infancy were still evident at age four
-Emotional Understanding: adopted children were less able to understand emotions
-Physical Development and Shyness: physical development of the adoptive children showed improvement at age four; between-group differences disappeared in shyness after adoption
What were the long-term psychological and physical effects observed in childhood survivors of the Holocaust?
-survivors who lost both parents were significantly more depressed than those who lost only one or none
-those with PTSD-functional impairment suffered significantly more from physical illness and depression
-elevated cortisol response to stress in the youngest male age group and in males suffering from PTSD-related functional impairments
What are the stressors in toddlerhood?
-Peer neglect
-Deprived environments (ex. orphanages, low SES)
-Poor maternal attachment
-Experiencing a traumatic event
-Psychological abuse/maltreatment
What are the types of attachment found in toddlers (stranger - cortisol study)?
Secure: do not demonstrate significant HPA activation in response to the Strange Situation (SS)
-Insecure-Avoidant: greater HPA activation in response to the SS than infants with secure attachments
-Insecure-Resistant: greater HPA activation in response to the SS than infants with secure attachments
-Disorganized: greatest levels of HPA activation in response to the SS
What are signs of stress among toddlers?
-sleep disruption
-difficulty concentrating
-sudden changes in mood
-repeating phrases/actions
-temper tantrums
-avoids physical contact
What are the 2 issues of sleep problems in stressed toddlers, and what is the prevalence?
-2 issues: those who have difficult falling asleep; those who wake frequently and cry for the attention of a parent
-22% of 9 month olds
-15-20% of 1-2 year olds
-16% of 3 year olds
What is the cortisol response of toddlers to peer neglect?
-children in full-time daycare showed significant increases in cortisol as the day progressed.
-correlated with teacher/parent reports of social rejection.
-suggests that peer interaction and emotional/language immaturity may lead to stress in pre-school aged children.
What did a study looking at peer relationships in pre-school and cortisol levels find?
-Popular kids have the lowest cortisol levels
-Neglected kids have the second lowest, because if they are playing alone they might not feel stressed (they may prefer to play alone)
-next are average kids
-highest cortisol levels are the rejected kids because they want to play with others but have been rejected
How do traumatic events affect toddlers?
-toddlers exposed to a traumatic life event exhibited greater symptom severity on measures of social and emotional functioning.
-children lack the language skills required to report certain cognitive factors of PTSD but show a huge emphasis on behavioural manifestations as a reaction to trauma.
-if a preschool aged child is exhibiting many behavioural outbursts, this may be the early signs of stress.
What are examples of stressors for school-aged children?
-anxiety about going to school (bullies; conflict with the teacher; difficulty with classmates; failing an exam; oral presentations; etc.)
-dental appointment
-embarrassment about parental alcoholism, illness or unemployment
-excessive television
-fads and dares
-lack of parental interest in achievements
-parental pressure to achieve
-younger siblings
What is school phobia?
-1% of school-aged population have school phobia.
-often misdiagnosed as separation anxiety
-characterized by physical symptoms such as agitation and physical resistance to the school situation (such as school refusal)
What are signs of stress in school-aged children?
-regressing to infantile behavior (bed wetting, thumb sucking)
-social withdrawal
-loss of motivation
-inability to concentrate in school
-behavior changes
-poor appetite and sleeplessness
-unexplained irritability
-headaches and stomachaches
-trouble getting along with peers
What did Bagdi & Pfister (2006) study find?
-34 kindergarten to third grade students and their parents
-Questionnaires rating stress in given situations
-Results: significant differences in child’s perceived stress and parents perception of the child’s stress; children reported their overall stress level as higher than parents did.
