Stress

Question 0

What is a stressor?

Answer 0

A stressor is when the stimulus which is perceived to be beyond the persons ability to cope.

Question 1

What is Stress?

Answer 1

Stress is when the perceived demand of the environment are greater than their perceived ability to cope.

Question 2

What is acute stress?

Answer 2

This is a short term or temporary stressor e.g Mock Exams

Question 3

What is a chronic stressor?

Answer 3

This is a long term or permanent stressor e.g having a very demanding job

Question 4

How do our bodies cope with stress?

Answer 4

Acute Stressor= SAM system is activated

Chronic Stressor= HPA axis is activated

Question 5

The stages of stress response

Answer 5

1. The situation is appraised and is considered to be beyond what the person feels that they can cope with a stressful event.
2. This the causes the hypothalamus to be alerted
3. If the hypothalamus decides the stress is acute then it activates the SAM but if it thinks it’s Chronic it activates the HPA Axis

Question 6

Outline the pituitary-adrenal system (HPA AXIS).

Answer 6

This is when the hypothalamus activates the pituitary gland which secretes ATCH hormones into the blood. This is detected by the adrenal cortex and causes the release of glucocorticoids, glucose and cortisol to be released into the liver, this leads to the release of glycogen into glucose.

Question 7

Outline the sympathomedullary pathway(SAM SYSTEM).

Answer 7

Sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system sends neuron messages to the adrenal medulla which causes the secretion of adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into the blood, this is detected by receptors on the organs and causes them to stimulate in form of the fight or flight response.

Question 8

Consequences of the SAM System

Answer 8

• Thinning of blood vessels
• Consequently Heart Disease
• Cardiovascular System to suffer wear and tear due to constant activation

Question 9

Consequences of Chronic Stress

Answer 9

• Cortisol and ACTH cause a reduction in the number of lymphocytes being produced
• Cortisol produced could explain why stress related illnesses worsen over time as cortisol levels build up

Question 10

Outline Research into acute stress and the immune system

Answer 10

Kiecolt-Glaser et al (1984)

Method
They took blood samples from 75 student volunteers
1. One month before examinations (control reading)
2. On the first day of their exams (stress reading).
They also completed a questionnaire to assess their psychiatric state, their level of loneliness and number of life events.

Results
In the stressed condition, on the day of their finals, they had significantly fewer natural killer cells.
They also found that loneliness, lots of life events and problems such as depression were all associated with a weak immune response.

Evaluation
It is a natural experiment since it took advantage of a naturally occurring event; examinations.
The independent variable (IV) was exam stress, a long-term form of stress. Most studies have concentrated on short-term stress. Note: natural experiments are high in ecological validity!
However though this was a natural experiment confounding variables are difficult to control. As a result we cannot be certain that stress led to the immune suppression. Other factors that were not controlled could be responsible.

Question 11

Outline research into Chronic stress and the immune system

Answer 11

Kiecolt-Glaser et al

Method
42 couples who had been married for an average of 12 years had small suction devices placed on their arms to deliberately create eight small blisters. The tops of these were removed and a small bubble placed over the top allowing fluids to be withdrawn.

On their first such visit the couples were drawn into a positive discussion about behaviours they’d like to change.

Two months later the couples returned and the procedure repeated. This time however, they were drawn into a more negative discussion about areas of disagreement which often provoked very strong feelings.

Findings
When tested it was found that on the second visit the blisters took a whole day longer to heal (60% longer) and that levels of the hormone interleukin-6 that controls wound healing was much higher. Women seemed to be particularly prone to the effects.

Conclusion
The researchers believe that stress can significantly slow down the immune response and particularly lengthen the time for healing.

Evaluation
Individual differences; a relatively small sample of women so we cannot be sure that they are representative of the general population as so their results cannot be generalised. Also we do not know whether any personality factors made some of these women more/less susceptible to the negative effects of stress than others.

Question 12

Outline and evaluate research into life changes

Answer 12

Aim
Holmes and Rahe (1967) were interested in the idea that life changes are linked to stress and illness. They suggested that change is stressful and therefore this affects our health. They developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), as a way to measure the relationship between life changes and physical illness.

Method
Rahe et al. (1970) used the SRRS to test the hypothesis that the number of life events a person experienced would be positively correlated with illness. 2700 participants (males who worked for the US Navy) completed the SRRS. The questionnaire was completed before a tour of duty and they had to note all the life events they had experienced over the previous six months.

Results
The SRRS and the illness score were analysed and it was discovered that there was a significant positive correlation between LCU score and illness score of +.118.
Interestingly it was found that it does not matter whether an event is positive or negative; it is the amount of change an individual has to deal during a life event that creates stress. This supports the idea that there is a positive correlation between life changes and physical illness. This occurs because life changes causes stress and stress causes illness.

Evaluation
A strength of this research is the sample size, as 2700 individuals completed the SRRS it means the results are more likely to be representative and valid due to the large sample size. This means that the findings and conclusions can be applied to other individuals.
However, a weakness of this study is it lacks population validity, for example it was only carried on males meaning it is androcentric. As the data has only be obtained from males it means the results might not be replicated on a female population, thus the results could be unreliable and invalid. This weakens the explanation on life events causing stress as the findings can’t be generalised to the whole population.
Another weakness of this study is it relies on self-report data; this method of data collection is unreliable.

Question 13

Research into Daily Hassles

Answer 13

Bouteyre et al
Aim
To investigate the relationship between daily hassles and mental health of students during their transition between school and University.
Procedure
First year psychology students completed the hassles and uplifts scale and the Beck depression inventory to measure depression.
Results
They found a positive correlation between students suffering from depression and scores on the daily hassles.
Conclusion
Transition from school to university has frequent daily hassles, which are a risk factor for developing depression.

Question 14

General evaluation on daily hassles

Answer 14

Daily hassles accumulate over the course of the day and therefore provide a more significant source of stress than life changes.
Severe life changes may make participants more vulnerable to the stress of daily hassles.

Question 15

What is workplace stress?

Answer 15

Workplace stressors are aspects of the workplace environment which elicits a stress response therefore which we experience as stressful.

Question 16

What are the two sources of workplace stress?

Answer 16

1. Workload: Having more to do than you can manage, or so little you get bored.
2. Control: Having no control over your work rate or content; not being able to set your own priority.

Question 17

Research into Workplace stress

Answer 17

Marmot et al
Aim
To investigate the effects of high workload an low job control on workplace stress.
Procedure
A sample of 10,308 civil servants aged 35-55 were investigated in a longitudinal study over the span of 3 years. Research methods included questionnaire and observation. Job control was measured through both a self-report survey and by independent assessments of the work environment by personal managers, using job specifications and role responsibilities. Job control was assessed on 2 occasions, 3 years apart. Records were kept of stress relate illness and the participants were checked for signs of cardiovascular disease. A correlational analysis was carried out to test the association between job control and stress related illness.
Results
Marmot et Al’s study found no link between high workload and stress related illness. 5 years after the assessment, marmot found men and women who initially reported low level of job control were 4 times more likely to develop heart disease than those with high levels of job control.
Conclusion
The findings seem to show that low job control is associated with high stress, as indicated by the number of stress-related illnesses. There is an inverse social gradient in stress related illness among British civil servants, as job control decreases so illness increases. In other words, the variables are negatively correlated. Implications include the responsibility of employers to address job control as a source of stress and illness.Giving employees more freedom and control may decrease stress-related illness, which in turn would increase the efficiency and productivity of the workforce.
Evaluation
+Kirimaki et al carried out a meta analysis of 14 studies and found that employees with high levels of job strain were +50% more likely to develop CHD
+Work is generally good for our health but it can be harmful, especially when combined with difficulties at home or daily hassles.
-Johansson et al looked at the effects of repetitive jobs that required much attention and found workers had higher illness rates and levels of adrenaline.
- Lazarus claims that the study of stressful factors in the workplace misses the point of people reacting and coping differently to individual stressors.

Question 18

How does personality and stress link

Answer 18

This is the idea that our personality acts as an important moderator variable for stress. This helps to explain why the same life events or daily hassles are a source of stress for some individuals but not for others.

Question 19

The effects of Type A and B on stress

Answer 19

In the 1960’s Friedman and roseman studied the behaviour of the patients suffering from coronary heart disease, they found that they displayed some distinctive behavioural pattern.

Question 20

Features of Type A & B personalities

Answer 20

Type A:
-Competitive
-Time Urgent
-Impatient
-Hostile and Aggressive
Type B:
-Relaxed 
-One thing at a time attitude
-Patient
-Express Feeling

Question 21

What is the link between Type A and CHD?

Answer 21

It is thought that type A are more susceptible to heart disease because it has been found that they have higher blood pressure and more stress hormones in their blood system- Roseman reported that Type A’s were more than twice as likely to develop heart disease than Type B personality types.

Question 22

Research into Type A’s effect on CHD

Answer 22

Friedman and Rosenman
Aim
To investigate the links between Type A behaviour patterns and cardiovascular disease.
Procedure
Using structured interviews, 3200 men aged 39-59 were categorised as Type A, Type B and Type X(balance between both). Assessment based on answers to interview and behaviour during interview. The men were healthy at the start of the research. The sample was followed up for 8.5 years to assess lifestyle and health outcomes.
Findings
At the end of the study 257 men has developed CHD, 70% of those were from the Type A group. These results were significant even when risk factors such as smoking and obesity were taken into account.
Conclusion
Type A behaviour pattern is risk factor for heart disease. Behaviour modification programmes to reduce Type A behaviour should result in a reduce risk of heart disease.
Evaluation
-Myrtek meta analysis of 35 studies found an association between hostility and coronary heart disease ( hostility is a trait associated with type A personality )
-However Ragland and Brand found little evidence of a relationship between personality and CHD
-Is personality the cause or effect of stress
-Most studies focus on men

Question 23

What is locus of control?

Answer 23

This is the extent to which an individual believes they are in control of their destiny(Internal) or at the mercy of events(External)

Question 24

How does locus effect stress?

Answer 24

- Individuals with internal LOC might get more stressed as they feel they should be able to control things. - Individuals with external LOC might get more stressed as they feel they can't do anything.

Question 25

What is Hardy Personality and how does this personality effect the three C's?

Answer 25

This personality type is more resilient to stress. In terms of the three C's when it comes to control hardy people see themselves as being in charge of their life, not controlled by any outside factors which they cannot control. For Commitment, hardy people are involved in the world around them and have a sense of purpose. When it comes to Challenges, hardy people see challenges as problems to be overcome rather than as stressors.

Question 26

Research for Hardiness

Answer 26

- Beasley et al found that students who scored highly on hardiness had a reduced stress level. - Lifton et al found that US students with high hardy scores were in fact more likely to finish their degree and low scores were the opposite and instead left quit.

Question 27

Name two psychological methods of stress management

Answer 27

- Hardiness training | - Stress Inoculation Therapy (SIT)

Question 28

What is SIT?

Answer 28

SIT is a form of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), where by a combination of psychological and behavioural therapy are used to change behaviour. It assumes that problems in thinking under life psychological disorders, so by changing the way the participant thinks you are in turn curing the disorder.

Question 29

What is Hardiness training?

Answer 29

Hardiness training involves 3 ways of tackling stress : focusing, reliving stress encounters and self improvement. Focusing is when the client is taught how to recognise the biological signs of stress e.g muscle tension and increased heart rate, and also to identify the sources of this stress. Reliving stress encounters involves the client reliving stress encounters and they are helped to analyse these situations and their response to them. This gives them an insight into their current coping strategy and how they can improve it. The final way of training hardiness is self-improvement, this is when the insights gained in the other phases can now be used to move forward and learn new techniques of dealing with stress. In particular, the client is taught to focus on seeing stressors as challengers that they can take control of.

Question 31

What is benzodiazepines?

Answer 31

Benzodiazepines increases the activity of the neurontransmitter GABA.

Question 32

What is GABA?

Answer 32

GABA is the body's natural form of anxiety relief whose role is to reduce the activity of other neurotransmitters throughout the brain and so make the person feel more relaxed. The reduced activity of serotonin seems to be particularly important in reducing the feelings of stress and anxiety.

Question 33

What are Beta Blockers?

Answer 33

Beta blockers act directly on the heart and other organs in the body to reduce the sympathetic arousal brought upon by the SAM response. Beta blockers bind to the receptor cells on the heart and other organs that are normally activated during SAM and so block the chances of them being stimulated.

Question 34

Outline and evaluate biological methods of stress management

Answer 34

When trying to cope with stress, some individuals use biological treatments (drugs) to help them manage their stress as it directly targets the stress response systems. One example is Benzodiazepines (BZs), such as Librium and Valium, they work by slowing down the activity of the central nervous system and reduce central arousal. BZs enhance the actions of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) which is a neurotransmitter and is the body’s natural form of anxiety relief. BZs enhance the action by reacting with GABA receptors (which increases the flow of chloride ions into the neuron) meaning it is harder for the neuron to be stimulated and the person feels more relaxed. BZs also reduces the levels of serotonin (a neurotransmitter that has an arousing affect on the brain), by decreasing these levels it reduces the anxiety the person feels. A strength of BZs is they are an effective form of stress management, for example Kahn et al’s (1989) study of 250 patients found that BZs were significantly more effective than placebos. This suggests that BZs do work at reducing the stress levels of individuals and are an effective way of treating stress. However, a weakness of BZs is that they have been known to produce ‘paradoxical’ symptoms, such as: aggression and cognitive problems (impaired memory). This is a weakness because the side effects of the drug treatment might be worse than the original symptoms of stress that the individual is seeking help from, plus these side effects could result in impairing the patient’s day-to-day life, meaning BZs might not be a good way of treating stress. Another form of biological treatment for stress management is Beta-Blockers. They bind to the receptors on the cells of the heart and other parts of the body, this blocks the receptor from being stimulated. This reduces the activity of the sympathetic nervous system, decreasing the activity of adrenaline and noradrenaline and slows down the heartbeat. By blocking these receptors, it is harder to stimulate the cells so the heart beats slower and with less force and blood vessels do not contract easily. This lessens the stress on the heart and results in a fall in blood pressure, which has a calming effect on the patient A strength of this treatment is the ease of use. Drugs can easily be prescribed and the patient simply has to take a tablet. This means there is little effort required from the patient, compared to Stress Inoculation Therapy and Hardiness Training; therefore it is suitable for everyone as it doesn’t require motivation and effort from the patient. A weakness is that the drugs only tackle the symptoms not the cause. For example, when a patient stops taking the drugs the symptoms can return as the issue of the stress hasn’t been dealt with. This means drugs are a short-term treatment and might not be as effective at treating chronic stress.

Question 35

Outline and evaluate psychological methods of stress management

Answer 35

Meichenbaum (1985) suggested Stress Inoculation Therapy (SIT) as a method of stress management. This is a type of cognitive behaviour therapy, it aims to train people to cope with anxiety and stressful situations by learning to ‘inoculate’ (protect) themselves against stressors. There are 3 main phases of SIT. The first phase is conceptualisation; this is when the individual is encouraged to identify key stressors in their life in order for them to think about them differently. The second stage (Skills Acquisition Phase) is where the client is taught coping skills such as positive thinking, relaxation, social skills and time management. The final stage is Application Phase, this is where the patient is given the opportunity to apply these skills to sample situations, a series of graduated challenges so they can practice these skills. By learning effective coping strategies, individuals are effectively ‘inoculating’ themselves against the harmful effects of future stressful situations, making themselves more resilient in the process. A strength of the therapy is that it is effective. For example, in comparison to systematic desensitisation, it was found to be more effective in treating phobias. This is because it was also effective for phobias that they weren’t treated for. This strengthens the therapy because it shows that this method can be applied to current and future issues, therefore providing a method for individuals to deal with future stress, meaning it is an effective long-term treatment for stress. A weakness of SIT is that it requires a lot of time, effort, money and motivation. . Clients have to go through a rigorous programme over a long period of time. It is not a quick, easy fix of dealing with stress, unlike drug treatments, therefore, this treatment might only be suitable for some people and not applicable for everyone. This is a weakness because it limits who the treatment is available to. Another method of stress management is Hardiness Training. This involves 3 ways of tackling stress: focusing, reliving stress encounters, self-improvement. Focusing is when the client is taught how to recognise the biological signs of stress e.g muscle tension and increased heart rate, and also to identify the sources of this stress. Reliving stress encounters involves the client reliving stress encounters and they are helped to analyse these situations and their response to them. This gives them an insight into their current coping strategy and how they can improve it. The final way of training hardiness is self-improvement, this is when the insights gained in the other phases can now be used to move forward and learn new techniques of dealing with stress. In particular, the client is taught to focus on seeing stressors as challengers that they can take control of. A strength of Hardiness training is that is has been used effectively by Olympic swimmers to ensure that they are committed to the challenge of increased performance levels. Fletcher (2005) found they were able to control the stressful aspects of their daily lives that might interfere with their training. This is a strength because it provides practical applications for various aspects of life, such as: the military and students at university, showing that Hardiness Training is effective for different populations. However, a weakness of this method is it is not a rapid solution to stress management. For example, it must address the basic aspects of personality and learned habits of coping that are difficult to change. This is a problem because it means this method of stress management might not work for all people due to the difficulty of addressing these areas so the treatment might not easy for everyone.