Stress Flashcards
How did Selye define stress and what are the two types of stress
Selya (1936) defines stress as- the non-specific response of the body to any demand (physiological or psychological)
-> Distress- a negative stress response which tends to be accompanied by physiological reactivity and negative emotions combined with negative coping mechanisms which leads to health risks e.g., irritability, anxiety
- Events causing distress are readily identifiable by vary among individuals - e.g., being fired from a job, divorce, illness
-> Eustress- a positive stress response which occurs when an individual feels stressed but capable and prepared for dealing with the stressors, and thus motivates them and has a positive effect on psychological state and functioning (generally not associated with negative long term effects)
Define stressors and explain the different types of stressors
Stressors- anything which causes stress on an individual (internal or external factors)
-> Environmental stressors- physical conditions and surroundings of the person
(noise, temperature, natural disasters)
-> Social stressors- based on personal relationships and societal interactions
(at work, school)
-> Cultural stressors- are derived from cultural identity, values and norms (e.g., discrimination, acculturative stress (‘culture shock’) is experienced when an individual tries to adapt to a new culture when living in it for a significant period of time
-> Psychological stressors- due to cognitive (thinking) or affective (emotional) factors whether internal or external stressors (divorce)
Explain the different stressor characteristics
-> Nature of stressors- refers to type of stressor (environmental, psychological, social or cultural)
-> Duration- how long it lasts - are they short-term (acute e.g., daily demands),physiological or psychological damage, or long-term (chronic e.g., ongoing relationship issues)
- Longer duration of chronic stress results in the body and mind being depleted and exhausted
- Consider also the cumulative impact of continual stressors which do not allow sufficient recovery time, e.g., serious illness, then exams, then breakup
-> Severity of stressors relates to how intense the stressor is, ranging from mild to severe (exists along a continuum)
- e.g., compare forgetting lunch to a prison term
- but physiological and psychological responses of the individual to a stressor will vary depending on its perception
who and when was the Stress as a Response- General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model created as a model of stress, what are the stages and what is it about
-> Selye (1936, 1983)
Han Selye named a set of physiological reaction to stress as the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) - ‘the body’s typical response pattern in terms of resistance to stress over time’
-> Model proposes that adaptation (a bodily mechanism) is required to cope with stress so stressors trigger a series of physiological reactions as a response to ease the impact of the stressor
Hence the model can be summarised as:
-> Stressor -> Physiological reactions -> Stress as response
-> The stages of GAS occur in three predictable stages:
- Alarm- reaction stage
- Resistance stage
- Exhaustion stages
Explain the Alarm Reaction stage in the Gas model (stress as a response)
The first response to the stressor occurs when the threat is detected by the amygdala, which sends a nervous signal to the hypothalamus via the sympathetic nervous system which hence prepares the body for action
-> The hypothalamus signals to the adrenal glands to release ‘stress hormones’, thus initiating the fight-or-flight response of the individual (does it through 2 ways):
- Hypothalamus Via the pituitary, it stimulates release of the hormone ACTH, which stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol
- Hypothalamus Via the sympathetic nerves, it stimulates the adrenal medulla directly to release the adrenaline and noradrenaline
-> The hormones stimulated through the GAS all prepare the body for action (i.e., to deal with a stressor/threat) and the release of these hormones primes the body for action via the fight or flight response through physiological changes including increased heart rate and breathing rate which leads to an increased delivery of glucose and oxygen to the muscles to deal with the threat
-> The stage is actually divided into two sub-stages: shock and countershock
- Countershock - it kicks in about 6-48 hours after the initial stressor occurs and occurs when resistance to stress is above normal but the cortisol release causes negative impacts on the body
- Before this, the persons is in the shock substage - the period immediately after the threat is perceived, our resistance falls and we act in a similar way to that when we experience injury - drop in body temperature, blood pressure, and muscle tone
Explain the Resistance stage in the Gas model (stress as a response)
Resistance Stage is when the body tries to stabilise its internal environment (restore homeostasis) while fighting the stressor
-> The sympathetic nervous system cannot continue to be active forever, so the body now reverses its effects by activating the parasympathetic nervous system
-> However, the stress hormones (cortisol) continue to be secreted, so the arousal is greater than normal (but lower than that in the alarm-reaction stage)
-> Immune system will be compromised; we will have enough resources to fight the current stressor but not further stressors (this makes us vulnerable to illness after a period of intense stress e.g., exams)
Explain the Exhaustion stage in the Gas model (stress as a response)
-> If we cope effectively with the stressor during the resistance stage (e.g., finish a major project at work), the parasympathetic nervous system will return the body to normal functioning
-> If not, the stress continues, and the body reaches physical and mental exhaustion
-> The stress hormones are depleted, adrenal glands no longer function optimally, blood glucose decreases, resulting in fatigue
-> In the case of chronic stress, the weakening of the body results in increased susceptibility to disease, while the effects on the mind increase the risk of poor mental health (e.g., depression)
What are the strengths and limitations of the Gas model (stress as a response)
-> Strength- the theory helped to conceptualise stress and its relationship to health
-> Limitation- however, the focus on the adrenal cortex and cortisol ignores evidence that different stressors trigger different responses from different organs, so there is not a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach to dealing with stress
-> Limitation- unique biological and environmental factors affecting the individual are not considered
who and when was the Stress as a Stimulus- Application of the Social Readjustment Scale model created as a model of stress and what is it about
This model was created to assess the impact of stressors on individual health and wellbeing:
-> Holmes and Rahe (1967) had noticed that many of the patients in their medical clinic tended to present with illness shortly after experiencing a series of major life changes (e.g., job loss, then divorce)
-> Therefore, they identified life changes or events as the stimulus (the stressor) to which the person responds
- E.g., getting a traffic ticket usually requires little adaptation, so it is less stressful; pregnancy requires a high level of adaptation, so it is more stressful
-> Thus a high number of stressful life events in a short period of time increases the vulnerability of the person to illness
-> Stress -> Physiological/Psychological reactions -> Alarm, resistance, exhaustion
How did Homles and Rahe define stress in the Stress as a stimulus model?
Holmes and Rahe defined stress by the adjustment/ adaptation required by certain major life changes/ events
What assumptions were made according to the Stress as a Stimulus- Application of the Social Readjustment Scale model created as a model of stress
-> Life changes are inherently stressful
-> If pushed beyond the limits required to cope with the stressor, the person will become ill (mental or physical)
-> The adjustment level required from all persons is similar for the same stressor
-> Factors such as personality and prior experiences do not alter the response to the stress
How was the Social Readjustment Scale developed by Holmes and Rahe to quantify stress
1) They examined the medical records of 5000+ patients and 43 stressful life events were identified
2) Convenience sampling of 394 ranked them from those requiring most protracted and intense readjustment to least
3) Events reordered and assigned numerical value known as Life Change Units (LCUs; most =100, least =10) where the higher the value, the more intense the readjustment required
4) The scale is administered to the individual, who marks those events they have experienced in the past year
5) The scores for all the events are tallied to give a total stress score
6) A score from 50-299 LCUs indicates a 50% chance of suffering from stress and a score more than 300 life units indicates an 80% chance of developing a stress related to illness
What strengths and limitations of the Stress as a Stimulus- Application of the Social Readjustment Scale model created as a model of stress
-> Strength- Allows quantitative measurement of stress, hence statistical analysis
-> Limitation- However, subjective measurement introduces bias
-> Limitation- Respondents cannot mention items beyond those included in the list
-> Limitation- Does not take into account individual circumstances (e.g., perceptions of event, resources to cope) and rarity of major life events compared to daily hassles
who and when was the Stress as a Transaction- Transactional theory of Stress and Coping model created as a model of stress and what is it about
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) created this model which sought to address mental processes and situational factors
-> The model can be summarised as:
- Stressors -> Stress (cognitive appraisal) -> Response (coping)
-> In other words, stress is a ‘transaction’ between the person and the environment as the environment provides the stressors, and the individual’s response depends on their unique appraisal of the event (e.g., threat or challenge?) and the resources they have to deal with it (e.g., support from others, natural abilities, finance?)
-> According to the model, the need to continuously assess the current situation produces stress; however, high levels of stress responses will be produced when there’s an imbalance between the requirements produced by the stressor and the individual’s perception of their ability to cope with it
How did Lazarus and Folkman define Stress
Stress is a consequence of a process where the individual appraises (assesses) the significance of the situation and their ability to manage it, which leads to their coping response
Identify and explain the main type of appraisal and the different types in the Stress as a Transaction- Transactional theory of Stress and Coping model created as a model of stress
Cognitive appraisal- subjective interpretation made by an individual of a stimulus in the environment, or the cognitive abilities used to assess situations (is the stimulus stressful or not for that individual?)
-> Primary appraisal- the initial ‘threat assessment’: is the situation a threat or a challenge, and is it relevant or irrelevant to us?
-> Secondary appraisal- the assessment of what resources (both internal and external) we have available to help us cope with the stressor, includes personal skills and factors (e.g., confidence), as well as assets (e.g., help from a friend)
What is Cognitive Reappraisal?
Reappraisal is a subprocess within cognitive appraisal. It occurs when the individual revisits their initial assessment of the situation and updates their perception based on new information or a shift in perspective
What are different factors that influence are appraisal
-> Personal- our values, beliefs about life, goals, prior experiences (whether successful or unsuccessful), natural talents and areas of weakness, affect (e.g., are we naturally pessimistic and anxious?), motivation, self esteem and self-efficacy, personal traits…
-> Resources- time, financial support, availability of physical resources, community and social support, help from competent others, options available to choose from…
-> Situation itself- novelty, controllability, constraints…
Identify and explain coping and the different types in the Stress as a Transaction- Transactional theory of Stress and Coping model created as a model of stress
Coping- the process (refers to managing the situation) where a person deals with the stressful stimulus and/or the emotional effects, through cognitive or behavioural means, often when the stressor is perceived as exceeding our ability to deal with it
-> Problem-focused coping- aims to resolve the root issue or solve the problem
- They can either be inwardly focused on the self or outwardly focused on the problem (e.g., learn a new skill, alternative solution to problem)
- They tend to be used when the person perceives that they have the resources to cope effectively
-> Emotion-focused coping- aims to manage the emotional response to the stress by decreasing the emotional distress experienced
- These strategies don’t change the situation directly; instead, they often aim to reduce the negative emotions by changing the way in which the situation is viewed (e.g., meditation)
- They tend to be used when the situation is out of a person’s control or when they perceive they don’t have the resources to cope
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Stress as a Transaction- Transactional theory of Stress and Coping model created as a model of stress
Advantages:
-> Focuses on psychological aspects of stress (controllable) – stress is viewed as a transaction with the environment, so the individual is not passive in the process;
-> Focuses on individual nature of the appraisal and stress response so explains why different persons respond differently and why responses may change over time;
-> Provides a means of thinking about our stressors and so changing the ways in which we respond.
Disadvantages:
-> Very difficult to test empirically (the model emphasises the highly subjective nature of stress and the personalised response);
-> Stress can be experienced without thinking consciously about the issue, so there is clearly a physiological aspect to stress which is not addressed by the model.
Define and explain the different types of way we cope with stress
Coping strategies are specific methods (whether behavioural or psychological) that are used by individuals to manage or reduce the stress produced by a given stressor
-> Maladaptive Coping Strategies- avoid confronting and dealing with the stressor appropriately
- Usually involve unhelpful and unhealthy coping strategies, which exacerbate (make worse) the adverse effects of stress (E.g., drinking alcohol and drugs, denial and procrastination, negative self talk and self blame, social withdrawal and avoidance of the stressor)
-> Adaptive Coping Strategies- involves confronting and dealing with the stressor appropriately
- These strategies, either involving dealing with a stressor appropriately or managing the negative emotions and cognitions that may arise from it, are beneficial and productive (E.g., facing a problem directly and either solving it or making a plan to do so, acceptance, exercise and socialising, seeking counselling or talking to others)
- It is important to consider the context when choosing an appropriate strategy to use (e.g., acceptance helps when facing a failed assessment, avoidance doesn’t work when needing to study beforehand)
