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Unit 3 Pyschology > Stress > Flashcards

Stress Flashcards

1
Q

stress definition?

A

Definition: psychological and physical strain or tension generated by a physical, emotional, social, economic, or occupational circumstances, events, or experiences that are difficult to manage or endure.

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2
Q

4 types of stress

A

Emotional
Social
Economical
Occupational

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3
Q

Characteristics of stress?

A

stress as a physical response
stress as a psychological response

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4
Q

Stress as a physical response?

A

Hans Selye ( 1936)
carried out research on rats
he described a general physical response to stress (GAS).
2 stages
Alarm resistance and exhaustion

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5
Q

Alarm resistance and exhaustion?

A

Stress is involved activation of the nervous system to release hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline to deal with stress.
Adrenaline prepares the body to face the stressor by giving the resources for fight and flight.
Cortisol releases glucose for energy.

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6
Q

Stress as a psychological response?

A

How we respond to stress depends on how we perceive it
Lazarus and Folkman ( 1984) : they proposed the transactional model of stress.

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7
Q

Stress is the interaction between a person and their environment?

A

A stressor is experienced, when the person makes a judgment as to whether they have the resources available to cope with the situation.
They make a primary appraisal : a consideration of whether the threat is significant or harmful, or challenging
Secondary appraisal
A consideration of whether the resources are available to combat the stressor

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8
Q

types of stress?

A

acute, episodic acute and chronic and eustress

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9
Q

Acute?

A

The most common form is the response to an immediate threat.
(sudden death, followed by taking an exam, confrontation, deadlines , sudden onset of illness)

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10
Q

Episodic acute stress?

A

repeated instances of short term stress
e.g taking on too much work, which has frequent demands of your time
illness, caring role, work deadlines
this kind of stress can become part of the personality and normal lifestyle

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11
Q

Chronic stress?

A

over a long period of time ( poverty, wealth, relationships, illness)

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12
Q

Eustress?

A

term used by Selye to describe positive stress , e.g driving test, packing for holiday, childbirth, buying a house, sport

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13
Q

Why is stress necessary?

A

it provides motivation and gives confidence .
People perform better when they experience a certain level of stress.
Too much stress has a negative affect on performance.
This can be seen in a Yerkes Dodson curve.

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14
Q

Different effects of stress?

A

Physical
psychological
lifestyle
medication
exam stress

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15
Q

Physical?

A

Increased blood pressure, narrowing of arteries, sweaty palms, increased heart rate, pupil dillation, shaking, stomach churning, headache, sleeplessness
Acute and chronic stress can cause damage to the immune system and lead to coronary heart disease ( case studies)

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16
Q

Psychological?

A

low self esteem
isolation
fear
anxiety
depression
exhaustion
emotional

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17
Q

Lifestyle?

A

coping mechanism
include
smoking
drinking
excercise
nail biting
pulling out hair
fidgeting, tapping
sleeping more
distractions

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18
Q

Exam stress?

A

NSPCC ( 2015)
Childline received a record number of calls from students worried about exams, canceling tripled, and education is now the highest cause of stress in teenagers.”

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19
Q

What happened between 2020 and 2024?

A

2020, no exams, no stress, whereas 2024, increased exam stresss

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20
Q

What does Madden
( 2014) state?

A

stress is the biggest contributor to depression among young people

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21
Q

Overcoming stress?

A

Mcgongigal states stress causes negative physical and psychological effects because we believe it ( self fulfilling prophecy)
professionals tell people that stress = negative, which may make their situations worse
stress cannot be eliminated from our lives, but people must know how to deal with it

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22
Q

What did Keller 2012 do?

A

study 30,000 americans
large sample size ( more generalisable) shows reliability, but it is not valid if it has only one culture.
High stress was associated with a 43% increased risk of death, but only among people who believed that stress was bad for their health.
Perception of stress causes damage
The research is correlational, so it is difficult to draw a causal conclusion.
This study aligns with the positive approach.

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23
Q

What 2 specific reponses can stress be divided into?

A

acute ( short term)
chronic ( long term)

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24
Q

When is adrenaline released?

A

when undertaking activities with a risk, such as extreme sports, but adrenaline causes harm to the heart if released frequently.

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25
Q

Acute stressor?

A

could be someone jumping out in front of you, causing your heart rate to increase
Your palms become sweaty, but the main chemical response is the release of the hormone adrenaline
secreted by the adrenal glands in the kidney and respond to stress

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26
Q

What is a nervous system?

A

specialised network of cells in the body for internal communication
pain receptors connect to the brain
the brain connects to the muscle , the muscle connects to the bones and the bones perform a function

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27
Q

What are the 2 nervous systems?

A

CNS ( central nervous system)
ANS ( autonomic nervous system)

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28
Q

CNS

A

the spinal cord

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29
Q

ANS?

A

autonomic and functions without conscious control
it manages breathing, heartbear and digestion

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30
Q

what are the 2 states that ANS consists of?

A

Sympathetic
Parasympathetic

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31
Q

Sympathetic?

A

activated by adrenaline
( fight or flight response)

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32
Q

Parasympathetic?

A

relaxation an calming
( noradrenaline)

33
Q

Noradrenaline

A

( opposite of adrenaline

34
Q

What is acute?

A

short term stress

35
Q

What does SAM stand for?

A

Sympathetic
Adrenal
medulla

36
Q

What happens when a person perceives a threat?

A

the hypothalamus in the brain is activated.
This causes the ANS to respond.
This arouses the sympathetic branch of the ANS
This sends a signal to the adrenal gland, which consists of 2 parts:
Cortex ( outer layer)
Medulla ( inner layer)
This releases the hormone adrenaline, or noradrenaline.
Adrenaline circulates in the bloodstream, targeting key organs such as the heart and muscles.
The heart rate increases and blood pressure rises.
When the threat has passed, the stress response is dampened by the parasympathetic branch of the ANS.
This is known as the Sympathomedullarypathway because it involves the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla

37
Q

Fight and flight response?

A

Adrenaline and noradrenaline prepare the body for fight or flight, the body diverts blood away from non essential organs.
Oxygen is cattied to muscles to make them work harder.
Glycogen is released from the muscles using the hormone Glucagon and is converted to glucose to provide energy.
The senses are sharpened to make the person more responsive to the environment.
Blood vessels dillate (widen), and salivary glands are constricted.
The mouth dries out
Sweat is produced, which cools the surface of the skin, as the nervous system is being overworked.
This prepares the body to face the stressor.

38
Q

Effect on the heart?

A

high levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline have a direct effect on the heart
both hormones have been linked to cardiovasculardisease and stroke

39
Q

Sympathetic arousal?

A

causes the heart to beat faster and blood pressure increases due to constriction of the blood vessels

40
Q

Plaques?

A

when the arteries can become blocked with fatty deposits
a release of adrenaline increases heart problems in the long term

41
Q

Heidt ( 2014)?

A

studied mice and medical staff, working in a stressful intensive care unit
In individuals whose arteries were thickened, the added stress increased the number of white blood cells in order to fight disease.
The increase in white blood cells caused inflammation and produced lesions. ( open wound )
platelets and clotting proteins attempt to fill the wound and increase the risk of the clot, causing a heart attack or stroke

42
Q

Evaluating adrenaline and acute stess?
supporting the evidence

A
43
Q

Leor ( 1996) ?

A

found there was an increase in the number of deaths caused by cardiovascular problems on the day of the Northridge california earthquake in 1994
earthquake was a unique oppurtinity to assess the effect of an acute stressor
( this would not be possible to replicate in a lab situation)

44
Q

What were the problems?

A

to cause acute stress of this magnititude would be unethical and unrealistic
the ethics are compromised ( DCPIPR)

45
Q

What is the conclusion of this?

A

the study supports the idea that stress and adrenaline cause cardiovascular problems

46
Q

The variables of this experiment?

A

No true independent variable as the participants heart condition already existed.
The dependent variable is the number of deaths on the day of the earthquake from heart disease.
QUASSI experiment because there is no true independent variable.

47
Q

Stress cardiomyopathy ( broken heart syndrome ) ?

A

effects people who suffer severe emotional stress after an event such as a bereavement
this can be misdiagnosed as a heart attack but is actually because of a massive release of adrenaline which paralyses the bottom of the heart, leaving the upper part of the heart to work harder
this condition can cause death
but majority of people make a full recovery

48
Q

Stress may not be a causal factor?

A

Dimsdale ( 2008) studied the relationship between stress and cardiovascular problems
he highlights that caution is required when stating that stress causes heart disease
( high cholestral level) , lackof excercise , intake of alcohol and medication and smoking

49
Q

Liu?

A

2015, the UK million women study
Liu states that people who are ill naturally report higher levels of stress and less happiness
did the illness cause stress?
or did the stress cause the illness
the research included data from 700,00 women

50
Q

Evaluation of that experiment?

A

Large sample size—more generalisable
Gender bias
Not ecologically reliable ( only in the UK)
Reliable but not ecologically
Produced quantitative data
The women were asked to fill out a questionnaire about their happiness, lives, and health status ( likely to be dishonesty).
( subjective )
There could be leading questions.
Open and closed question
Low response rate
Not all information may be disclosed.
The women were followed up after 10 years ( longitudinal study). Allows cause and effect to be seen—adds validity ( more accurate) 4% of the 700,000 had died. ( 28,000 people)
Conclusion: death rates among the unhappy people were no greater than the happy people , which suggests that stress is not a causal factor in heart disease.

51
Q

Gender differences Taylor ( 2000)?

A

the female response to stress is to ‘ tend and befriend’
through evolutionary adaptiveness, women cope with stress through nurturing their young ( tending) and creating social networks with other women ( befriending)
when confronted with danger, women tend not to fight ( stereotype), so to protect their offspring, they will either flee the situation or befriend the attacker

52
Q

Hormones?
oxytocin

A

released following birth, sex or stress
( often referred to as a love hormone )
the effect of oxytocin - to make individuals feel more relaxed and reduce the fear response)
oxytocin is released by both men and women in response to stress, but in studies of rats, female stress release more oxytocin than males
In stressful situations, men produce higher levels of testosterone which has a negative affect on oxytocin
incudes aggression

53
Q

Blascovich ( 1996) ?

A

suggested that the difference in how the body responds to stress is dependent on our accessions to the event as a challenge or a threat.
If we see an event as a challenge, the blood vessels dilate, allowing greater blood flow and greater oxygen supply, increasing alteredness, and allowing relaxation .
If the event is perceived as a threat, heart rate increases, temperature rises, and illness is more likely, resulting in negative effects.

54
Q

In conclusion?

A

Blascovich states that the perception of stress may be more harmful than the stress itself.

55
Q

Jamieson 2012?

A

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups to deliver a speech while receiving negative feedback. One group was instructed to assess their physiological arousal as a challenge or threat, the second group was told to ignore the stress source, and the third group received no guidance. Those who analyzed their performance experienced notable physical effects of stress. This raises the question: does focusing solely on the biological aspects of stress overlook its psychological dimensions?

56
Q

Biofeedback

A

The physiological response to stress includes involuntary symptoms like increased heart rate and sweaty palms. Gaining control over these responses can promote calmness in stressful situations, often through biofeedback. In this method, individuals are connected to machines that monitor their autonomic nervous system, providing real-time feedback on heart rate, blood pressure, and muscle tension. They learn techniques such as meditation or relaxation to manage their responses. This process can be facilitated by a therapist or done at home using advanced technology, including computer games and wearable devices that track biological data and sync with smartphone apps.

57
Q

Freeze reactions?

A

Barlow (2002) describes the freeze response as an automatic reaction in situations where fleeing or fighting is ineffective, similar to how some animals play dead when threatened. Victims of violent crime have reported being unable to move during attacks. Koutsikou (2014) suggests a biological basis for this response, identifying a brain pathway in adult rats that connects the periaqueductal gray (PAG) to the pyramis, which triggers the freezing reaction. The PAG is crucial for how humans perceive danger.

58
Q

Biological explanation 2?

A

Cortisol and chronic stress ( long-term stress )

59
Q

Biological explanation 2

A

The body’s secondary response to stress activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system, which is slower than the SAM system and triggered by chronic stressors like relationship issues, anxiety, or caregiving. This response releases cortisol, a hormone that helps the body cope but can weaken the immune system and suppress other hormonal systems at high levels. Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) research (1936) demonstrated that various stressors elicit a similar physiological response in rats, highlighting the body’s general coping mechanism. Selye noted that stress depletes biochemical resources, leading to a deterioration of health during the exhaustion phase, characterized by excessive cortisol release.

60
Q

HPA access?

A

Upon encountering a stressor, the body triggers both the SAM response and a slower HPA system response. The hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) into the bloodstream, prompting the pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). This, in turn, stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol.

61
Q

Lacey 2000?

A

Lacey (2000) conducted a prospective investigation, a longitudinal study that examines how specific characteristics affect later behavior. The study focused on students preparing for an exam and compared them to a matched control group. Results showed that 90% of the students had elevated cortisol levels one hour before the exam.

62
Q

Cortisol?

A

Cortisol, a steroid hormone from the glucocorticoid group, plays several roles in the nervous system, including learning, memory, glucose regulation, and immune response activation. During stress, cortisol reduces pain sensitivity and releases glucose for sustained energy, aiding concentration. However, high cortisol levels negatively impact cognitive performance, particularly memory, and weaken the immune response.

63
Q

Effects on memory?

A

Kuhlmann (2005) studied the effects of cortisol on memory by administering it to women tasked with recalling a list of 30 words. Key elements included informed consent and confidentiality. The independent variable (IV) was cortisol concentration, while the dependent variable (DV) was word recall. Results showed that higher cortisol levels correlated with lower recall, highlighting implications for stress-induced memory issues, like “mind going blank” during exams. A limitation of the study was potential gender bias, as men’s responses may differ.

64
Q

effects on health?

A

The immune system typically attacks pathogens, but during stress, it is suppressed as non-essential. Cortisol reduces inflammation, but prolonged stress leads to continued immunosuppression, increasing illness risk. This is exemplified in Cushing’s syndrome, a hormonal disorder caused by excess cortisol, affecting adults aged 20 to 50. Symptoms include obesity, muscle weakness, depression, diabetes, high blood pressure, and fatigue. Cushing’s syndrome can result from heightened stress or tumors in the pituitary or adrenal glands.

65
Q

Research evidence?

A

Kiecolt-Glaser (1984) studied the impact of stress on the immune system by measuring natural killer (NK) cells in 75 medical students at Ohio State University. The study occurred one month before, during, and after their exams. Students also completed the Social Readjustment Rating questionnaire to assess stress levels.

66
Q

Evaluation?

A

Low cortisol levels can lead to health issues, often revealing themselves after a stressor is removed, such as falling ill during school holidays. A sudden drop in cortisol can trigger inflammation. Helm (2000) linked low cortisol to conditions like chronic fatigue syndrome and PTSD, highlighting the need for balanced cortisol levels to maintain health.

67
Q

Issues in research studies?

A

Establishing a clear cause-and-effect relationship between stress, cortisol, and illness is challenging, as stress often alters eating, sleeping, and substance habits, impacting cortisol levels. The most consistent findings relate to age and gender. Lopez-Duran (2000) found that cortisol levels in children peaked 10 to 60 minutes after a stressor, with boys demonstrating better control over their cortisol response, indicating a potential gender influence on stress response.

68
Q

Stress is not always a negative for the immune system?

A

Evans (1994) found that stress can enhance the immune system by increasing the antibody SlgA, which fights infection. In his study, students delivering talks showed higher SlgA levels compared to their levels during exams, when SlgA decreased.

69
Q

2 effects on the immune system?
( evans 1997)

A

Up regulation for short-term acute stress
This is to increase efficiency at coping
Down regulation for long-term chronic stress decreases efficiency

70
Q

Stress doesn’t always raise cortisol level?

A

Lewis (2007) reviewed studies on exam stress and found cortisol levels in students increased by 58% to 95%, though this was deemed unreliable and unrepresentative. His own research found no significant change in cortisol levels, indicating potential extraneous variables such as the duration and nature of the stressor. He highlighted the need for more longitudinal studies to better understand cortisol fluctuations.

71
Q

Prenatal stress and cortisol?

A

Cortisol affects not only those experiencing stress but also unborn children. Pregnant women under stress release cortisol, which can cross the placenta and impact fetal development. O’Connor (2005) found a link between maternal stress during pregnancy and higher cortisol levels in 10-year-old children, suggesting prenatal stress influences the child’s HPA system. Sarkar (2007) found a correlation between maternal cortisol levels and those in amniotic fluid, indicating potential effects on cognitive and behavioral development, though establishing cause and effect is challenging. Additionally, Seltzer (2010) showed that girls aged 7 to 12 who received comfort during stress had lower cortisol levels, highlighting the role of social support in mitigating stress effects.

72
Q

Individual differences : explanation 1 : hardiness?

A

People can respond differently to the same event, leading psychologists to examine individual differences in stress responses. One key factor is a hardy personality, defined as the ability to thrive in challenging situations. Individuals with a hardy personality may cope better with stressors, mitigating their negative effects on health.

73
Q

The hardy personality?

A

Kobasa (1979) identifies three key elements that enable individuals with hardy personalities to better handle stress:

Control: They perceive themselves as in control of their lives and believe their actions can influence outcomes.
Commitment: Hardy individuals have a sense of purpose, are curious about the world, and view negative situations as challenges, choosing to engage rather than isolate.
Challenge: They see stress as an opportunity for growth, accept that change is a part of life, and learn from both successes and failures.

74
Q

Buffering?

A

A hardy personality fosters resilience against stress by equipping individuals with effective coping strategies, such as self-care and social support. Those with a hardy personality tend to have lower physiological stress responses, including reduced blood pressure and heart rate, and experience fewer stress-related illnesses due to lower cortisol production.

75
Q

Research studies?

A

Kobasa (1979) compared two groups of male businessmen using the SRRS and an illness survey. Group 1 experienced high stress but remained healthy, while Group 2 experienced high stress and fell ill. The healthy group exhibited hardy personalities.

Maddi (1987) studied Bell Telephone Company employees facing redundancy and found that one-third with hardy personalities reported fewer stress-related illnesses, with hardiness proving more effective than other buffering factors like exercise or social support.

Bartone (1999) researched soldiers, noting that those with hardy personalities were less likely to develop long-term PTSD or depression after combat.

76
Q

Hardy individuals
traits?

A

Individuals with a hardy personality can identify and analyze stressful situations for resolution (hardy coping). They seek and provide social support (hardy social interaction) and maintain a healthy diet and lifestyle while engaging in relaxation (hardy self-care).

77
Q

Low hardiness?

A

Some individuals avoid stress through distraction activities like gambling or overspending. They may feel victimized by those around them and often maintain a poor diet and low exercise levels.

78
Q

Evaluations?

A

Kobasa’s (1979) study had a gender-biased sample of male businessmen, which may have skewed results, as outcomes could differ for females due to traditional roles. Shepherd (1991) noted inconsistent findings regarding gender, suggesting that hardiness might be less significant than gender itself. He found that the control and commitment aspects of hardiness predicted positive health outcomes for males but not for females. Additionally, hardiness was more impactful in older women with low stress levels.

79
Q

The importance of all 3 elements?

A

Maddi (2013) argues that all three components of a hardy personality are necessary for a buffering effect against stress. Individuals high in control but lacking commitment or challenge are categorized as type-A personalities, characterized by competitiveness and hostility.

Sandvik (2013) studied 21 Norwegian navy cadets during a stressful exercise, measuring hardiness scores and blood samples before and after. The cadets showed high hardiness, moderate commitment and control, but low challenge, which Sandvik termed “unbalanced.” This imbalance contributed to greater immune system damage in response to stress, raising questions about the vulnerability associated with low challenge levels.

Unit 3 Pyschology (3 decks)

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