Statistics & the Scientific Method

Question 1

What are the methods of knowing?

Answer 1

1. Tenacity
   Information accepted as true because its always been believed to be true or repeated often. Persistent. Very difficult to change.
2. Intuition
   Ominous significance of random/chance events
   information is accepted based on a gut feeling.
   Cons: biases affect perceptions and can lead to crazy intuitions unsupported by evidence. No critical evaluation by others.
3. Authority
   Acceptance of information from an authority.
   Cons: authorities can be wrong. Expertise generalizes other areas. Tend to be accepted without question.
4. Rationalism
   Knowledge gained by applying pure reason and logic. Major + minor premise taken as true = correct conclusion
   Cons: incorrect premise leads to incorrect conclusion
5. Observation
   Learning through observation and experience. The doctrine that all knowledge is derived from sense experience.
   Cons: difficult to be objective. Senses can be easily tricked. Humans are full of biases.
6. Scientific Method
   All ideas are subjected to an empirical test. A combination of empiricism and rationalism. Objective observations, data based conclusions, tentative conclusions.
   Asks answerable questions that can be proven valid or wrong.
   Observation-theory-prediction-experiment

Question 2

Variables

Answer 2

Any characteristic of individuals that can take on different values depending on the situation.

Question 3

Independent variable

Answer 3

Manipulated by the researcher

Question 4

Dependent variable

Answer 4

Measured to determine effect of the independent variable

Question 5

3 types of observational studies

Answer 5

No direct exp manipulation of variables by researcher

1. Naturalistic: just observe in natural environment
2. Parameter estimation: interested in a characteristic of the population
3. Correlational studies: determine if 2 or more variables are related.

Question 6

Scales of measurement

Answer 6

Determine types of tests used to analyze

Different scales have different properties

Question 7

Properties of Measurement Scales

Answer 7

(least to greatest)

1. Property of identity
2. Magnitude/Ordinality
3. Equal unit size
4. Absolute zero

Question 8

Property of Identity

Answer 8

Each value represents a descriptive category

ex: drink brand, religious affiliation

Question 9

Property of magnitude/ordinality

Answer 9

Assigned values reflect greater than and less than

grading scheme = ex

Question 10

Property of equal unit size

Answer 10

Difference between numbers are the same

ex: 120-130…and 180-190

Question 11

Property of absolute zero

Answer 11

Zero represents nothing of the variable

Ex. # of cars in a parking lot. If zero, zero= no cars