Speed Round

Question 1

recursive processing

Answer 1

neural processing that enables reflection on other neural processes, arguably allowing humans or other animals to be aware of themselves and their mental content

28

Question 2

mirror test

Answer 2

a test that supposedly determines whether a non-human animal sees its reflection in a mirror as an image of itself; taken as a measure of self awareness

can just show, or put dye on the animal,

28

Question 3

metacognition

Answer 3

knowing that one knows something

28

Question 4

high-frequency brain oscillations

Answer 4

most widely discussed novel framework for understanding consciousness; although primal basis of brain oscillations is well understood, the reason for their variety and behavior in different circumstances isn’t

emphasis on high frequency oscillations of 40Hz and higher, and more broadly on synchronized brain activity

28

Question 5

blindsight

Answer 5

the ability of people who are blind, usually because of damage to their cortex, to identify the properties of simple visual stimuli when forced to guess

probably possible due to subcortical visual processing of information in the stimulus abetted by implicit processing in the extrastriate cortex

28

Question 6

scotoma

Answer 6

the area of blindness in the visual field created when a lesion in Vi causes blindsight

28

Question 7

coma

Answer 7

brain state of indviiduals who have suffered brain injury that leaves them in a deeply unconscious state defined by apparent unresponsiveness to sensory stimuli

usually do to compromised function of brainstem and other deep brain structures such that normal interaction of these w/ the cerebral cortex is interrupted

28

Question 8

binocular rivalry

Answer 8

fact that when a particualr stimulus pattern is presented to one eye and a discordant one is produced to another, the same region of visual space is perceived to be alternatively occupied by the two patterns

28

Question 9

inattentional blindness

Answer 9

change blindness; the noraml inability to see a particular alteration in a changing scene because the change is not noticed

28

Question 10

attentional blinks

Answer 10

a cognitive phenomenon, typically observed in a rapidly presented stream of stimuli, in which teh ability to successfully report a second target stimulus occurring withiin 100 to 300 milliseconds of a successfully reported first target in teh stream is decreased.

28

Question 11

bistable figures

Answer 11

visual stimli that elicit perceptual changes that fluctuate back and forth between the perception one of two different objects

28

Question 12

perceptual aftereffects (consciousness)

Answer 12

same inducing stimulus can be presented w/o awareness by masking or stimulus crowding during presentation. Lack of awarenss of teh inducing stimulus doesn’t abolish the aftereffect, implying that visual cortical neurons sensitive to orientation are just as active when subjects are aware of the inducing stimulus as when they are not.

28

Question 13

reticular activating system

Answer 13

a collection of nuceli in the central region of the brainstem involved in arousal and motivation, implicated in the states of sleep

includes the cholinergic nuclei of the pons-midbrain junction, the noradrenergic cells of teh locus coeruleus, and the serotonergic neurons in the raphe nuclei; these nuclei are in turn controlled by circadian clocks in the suprachiasmatic nucleus and hypothalamus

these clocks are entrained to the light-dark cycles taht define day and night

28

Question 14

delayed gratification and development

Answer 14

part of an executive system not fully developed even in adolescence;

the younger the child, the greater the problem w/ delaying gratification; time taken to delay gratification is positively correlated w/ academic achievement later

by 6, children will often wait as long as 25 minutes for the larger reward

Question 15

compare youth w/ adults risk neurophysiology

Answer 15

both age groups:

• increased activation in orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex making high-risk as opposed to low-risk decisions
• increase activation bilaterally in ventraolateral prefrontal cortex when receiving negative as opposed to positive feedback
• however, children show MORE activation of anterior cingulate cortex during risk engagement, and MORE activation of the orbitofrontal cortex when processing negative feedback

consistent w/ idea that circuitry relying on the dorslateral PFC and the orbitofrontal cortex and its connectyions w/ the anterior cingulate cortex may not be fully developed by the age of 12

Question 16

compare youth w/ adults rules

Answer 16

at age 2 can sort objects according to one rule,
at age 3 can sort w/ 2 rules easily
but difficulty w two incompatible rules as in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task
by 5 can handle this, too

behavioral changes in ability seems to track increase to adult levels in grey matter in 1st) the orbitofrontal cortex, 2nd) the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, and 3rd) the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

Question 17

visual habituation paradigm

Answer 17

infants shown repeated examples of one numerosity until the time they spent looking at each exemplar decreased, indicating that they’d been habituated to the number

tested w/ alternating exmplars of the familiar and a new numerosity; if the infants looked longer at the exemplars of the novel numerosity, can assume that they have discriminated between the two

Question 18

baby numerosity facts

Answer 18

babies a few day old seem to discriinate arrays of dots or other objects based on number

human infants can also manipulate numerical representsations in rudimentary calculations, looking longer at outcomes of eevents when the result is mathematically impossible and violates expectations

Question 19

baby language facts

Answer 19

left hemisphere is already the locus of speech processing - better sound discrimination from right ear, more activation in the left,

strong evidence for language circuity arising from developmental programs that precede experience

adults show posterior temporoparietal ERP differences between “open class” words (nouns and verbs) and “closed class” words that convey grammatical relationships (prepositions, determiners, and conjunctions);

children understand meaning of open/closed class words at 20 months, but show no ERP distinction; by 28-30 months - when children begin to speak in short sentences - the distinctoin is present. By age 3, children are speaking in complete sentences and employing closed class words correctly, and ERps show the mature pattern of left-hemisphere assymetry to closed-class words. All of this indicates that brain systems for language become more specialized as you go.

Early development injuries can be recovered from where other parts of brain take on funtions.

Question 20

preposition

Answer 20

a grammatically distinct class of words whose most central members characteristically express spatial or temporal relations (such as the English words in, under, towards, before) or serve to mark various syntactic functions and semantic roles (such as the English words of, for).

Question 21

determiner

Answer 21

a word, phrase or affix that occurs together with a noun or noun phrase and serves to express the reference of that noun or noun phrase in the context. That is, a determiner may indicate whether the noun is referring to a definite or indefinite element of a class, to a closer or more distant element, to an element belonging to a specified person or thing, to a particular number or quantity, etc. Common kinds of determiners include definite and indefinite articles (like the English the and a[n]), demonstratives (like this and that), possessive determiners (like my and their), and quantifiers (like many, few and several).

Question 22

conjunction

Answer 22

a part of speech that connects words, sentences, phrases or clauses. A discourse connective is a conjunction joining sentences. This definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a “conjunction” must be defined for each language. In general, a conjunction is an invariable grammatical particle, and it may or may not stand between the items it conjoins.

Question 23

near infra-red spectroscopy

Answer 23

method where optical signals related to brain activity are obtained through skull w/ laser diodes taped to the subject’s head

measures differences in light absorption of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin

particularly practical w/ infants since their skulls and scalp tissues are relativey thin and thus produce less light scattering than adult heads. Method is protable, less expensive than fMRI, safer than PET and free from the motion artifacts that infants who can’t stay still wouldn’t be able to follow.

Question 24

infant emotion facts

Answer 24

• by 3 months of age, infants can distinguish between frowning and smiling expressions in adults
• by 4-7 months can differentiate surprise from happiness
• ## visual cliff paradigm (shallow side vs deep side) shows that infants in first year of life use their mother’s emotional expressions to make decisions about potentially perilous actions

Question 25

infant social cognition facts

Answer 25

• routine exposure to faces improves discrimination of upright vs inverted faces (6 - 12 months), own race vs !own race, own species vs !own species (9 months to discriminate b/t chimps and people)
• ## already track faces from birth, showing that they are genetically privileged

Question 26

false belief task

Answer 26

demonstrates egocentrism

task where children 3 - 7 are presented w/ story about a boy named Maxi and bar of chocolate; maxi places chocolate into kitchen cabinet and then leaves; Maxi’s mother comes in and moves it to the refrigerator; children then asked where Maxi will look later

Children at 3 claim maxi will look in fridge because he wants chocolate; 5 year old will get it right

Question 27

autism

Answer 27

a disorder that affects about 3-6 in every 1000 children and involves many social deficits

individuals

• avoid physical and eye contact
• heightened interest in the inanimate world, often fixating on particular objects
• fail theory of mind tasks beyond age of 4
• fail to recognize biological motion
• focus less on eyes and more on mouth or body when shown images of people

social cognition brain areas including amygdala, superior temporal sulcus and the fusiform gyrus are dysfunctional in autistic people;

autistic people show less frontal and amygdala activation;

autistic children have less activity in the fusiform gyrus and higher precuneus are when matching photos w/ same facial expression

Question 28

William’s Syndrome

Answer 28

a genetic disorder characterized by distinctive facial features, mild retardation, an unusually cheerful demeanor, and a talkative personality

normal social cognition, orienting to faces and successfully passing theory of mind tests

evidence for the social brain hypothesis, but evidence that Down syndrome people have impaired face processing but normal theory of mind suggests that segregation of social cognition may occur postnatally

Question 29

infantile amnesia

Answer 29

evidence that declarative is late to develop, the phenomenon where infants have almost no explicit memories despite havin an enormous ability to acquire nondeclarative memories

Question 30

elicited imitation paradigm

Answer 30

infants observe as an experimenter enacts an event using props
ex. experimenter uses rod to roll a car down a ramp, causing a light to turn on.
infant then observed for how many operations it reconstructs compared to a control

9 month age shows reliable ordered recall of action sequences, and robustness increases w/ age

infants as young as 13 months can remember 2- and 3-step sequences for as long as 8 months under the appropriate conditions

so even though adults don’t remember anything, ifnants are forming robust memories that last for months and are influneced by the same factors that affect adult memories

theorized that children have a pre-explicit memory system prior to an explicit memory system that develops with the inferior temporal cortex

children begin to show more sophisticated mnemonic strategies as they enter preschool

Question 31

preferential looking technique

Answer 31

infants shown two visual displays on side by side computer screen; if they show the same thing, infants show no preference. Visual acuity in the infant can be determined by varying the spatial frequency of alternating stripses and contrasting them w/ plain gray squares

Question 32

crossmodal preference paradigm

Answer 32

infants shown two visual displays, one of which matches information presented in a second sensory modality; infants prefer the matching stimulus

Question 33

visual habituation paradigm

Answer 33

infants shown stimulus repeatedly until their looking time decreases; new stimulus presented in alternation w/ old stimulus and infants who look longer at new stimulus are taken to have discriminated the old from the new.

Question 34

violation of expectancy method

Answer 34

infants witness an event that results in something impossible or possible; looks longer at impossible outcome, etc.

Question 35

high amplitude sucking and head turning

Answer 35

in studies of infant speech and sound discrimination, infants sucking / head moving behavior in response to change in habituated stimulus is used to measure discrimination between phonemes, etc.

Question 36

conjugate mobile paradigm

Answer 36

string attached to infant’s leg and connected to mobile above infant in crib; infant kicking produces an effect the infant will like; the mobile is later replaced; helps measure memory as well as influence of the similiarity of the test mobile

Question 37

baby attention facts

Answer 37

posterial parietal and subcortical underpinnings of attention already operative in first year of life.

as age increases, higher level control systems for attention emerge

obligatory attention movement probably due to development of tonic inhibition of the colliculus via the substantia nigra;

at 2 months, can use middle temporal (MT) motion areas of the extrastriate cortex;

by 3-4 make anticipatory eye movements and can learn sequences of eye movements

4 months, can inhibit looking at a stimulus if they ahve learned that a more attractrive stimulus will soon appear somewhere else

Question 38

baby perception facts

Answer 38

newborn’s experience of world is actually quite organized

poor acuity ata first, but nearly adult level by 8 months

color vision also bad, but almost adultlike by 4-5 months old

looming response (depth cue) - infants respond to objects whose size increase rapidly by blinking as young as 1 month;

by 4 months, can use binocular disparity to determine distance of nearby objects

by 6-7 months, additional monocular cues to depth such as occlusion and relative size also used

can integrate separate stimulus as young as 4 months and improve from there

long-term memory for uterine sounds demonstrated; also some prenatal chemosensory learning

Question 39

IQ differences among adolescents

Answer 39

superior IQ performance adolescents had thinner cortex in the superior prefrontal gyri but rapid incrase in cortical thickness relative to rest of sample

Question 40

age brain activity relationship

Answer 40

brain activity becomes more focal and less diffuse over development

Question 41

object permancence

Answer 41

babies less than 8 months of age seem to not understand that objects don’t cease to exist when they move out of view;

however was demonstrated that looking behavior by 3-month-old infants suggests that out-of-sight objects do remain in mind

Question 42

piaget’s stages

Answer 42

1) sensorimotor stage (0 - 2 years) - infants dominated by reflex responses with learning and intelligengce guided and constrained by sensory/motor abilities; trial and error learning

2) preoperational stage (2 - 7): children develop representational or symbolic abilities; conventional and self-generated symbols in their play behavior
demonstrated egocentrism and conservation

3) ( 7 - 12) concrete operations stage; children begin to reason about the world, can explain why rearranging objects has no effect on # of objects in a line; still limited.
4) (12+) adept at reasoning hypothetically and thinking abstractly

Question 43

assimilation

Answer 43

adding new people events and objects to preexisting schemes of thought

Question 44

accomodation

Answer 44

changing scheme of thought as a result of new stimulus

Question 45

Kennard principle

Answer 45

the variability of neural plasticity over developmental time concerns the recovery fo neurological function after brain injury; the generalization that recovery is better the early in development the injury occurs

Question 46

blastocyst

Answer 46

a stage of embryonic development intermediate b/t zygote and the embryo; differentiates into 3 layers that make up the gastrula

Question 47

gastrula

Answer 47

has 3 germ layer: the endodoerm, mesoderm, and ectoderm; the brain and the rest of the nervous system derive from the ectoderm component

Question 48

neurulation

Answer 48

around the 20th day of embryogenesis, neurulation occurs: the midline of the ecotderm develops into the neural plate, which then folds inwoard on itself within 3-4 weeks postgestation to form the neural tube

Question 49

neural precursor cells

Answer 49

the cells of the neural tube

Question 50

neuroblasts

Answer 50

middle stage between neural precurser cells and the neurons/neuroglia that they eventually become

Question 51

ventricular zone

Answer 51

locus of cell division, the inner surface of the neural tube; precursor cells migrate outward from here before they differentiate into neurons

Question 52

myelination

Answer 52

increases the speed of action potential condution and thus improves the efficieny of neuronal signalling and processing in general; begins late in gestation (29 weeks) and not really finished until adolescence

Question 53

neuroanatomy milestones after first year

Answer 53

80% of adult weight by agge 2;
90% by age 5;

brain size peaks at late teenage and declines thereafter;
volume peaks at 11.5 and 14.5 for women and men, respectively

primary regions to develop are primary functions: motor and sense, followed by temporal and parietal cortices associated w/ language and spatial attention

last brain regions to develop are prefrontal and lateral temporal cortices invovled in sensorimotor integration, modulatonj of attention/language, and critical aspects of deciding

Question 54

brain size phylogenetic patterns

Answer 54

as brain size increases, the complexity of computations that the brain can perform usually increases; relationship is not absolute (ex. human ancestor w/ chimp size brains but sophisticated tools)

mammals and birds have generally larger brains (and certainly larger cerebral cortices) than reptiles, fish, amphibians

Question 55

allometry

Answer 55

differential measurements of individual body parts in relation to the whole

allometric relationship of brain and body size highly variable among species;

many animals ahve larger brains than expected for their average body size and others don’t; explained as an adaptational decision

Question 56

residual brain size

Answer 56

deviations from allometrically predicting brain size;

Question 57

neocortex phylogeny patterns

Answer 57

as the brain gets larger the neocortex tends to get larger;
allometric relationship relating neocortex size to brain size has the same slope, but different intercepts in different species

human pattern is explained as fast evolution of genes leading to humans - particular microcephalin-1 (MCPH1)

Question 58

gyrification index

Answer 58

a quantitative measure of the degree of neocortical folding
s
scales positively w/ the size of the neocortex; primates w/ neocortices larger than predicted also shown even greater degrees of neocortical folding

Question 59

neurocomplexity phylogeny patterns

Answer 59

pattern that as brain-to-body-weight ratios increased over time, so did # of neuronal cell types;

Question 60

microcephalin-1

Answer 60

gene implicated as important to the growth and differentiation of neurons; mutations lead to sever reductions in head and brain size

Question 61

principle of proper mass

Answer 61

states that the mass of neural tissue controlling a particular function will be proportional and appropriate to the amount of information processing involved in performing the function in question

Question 62

mosaic brain evolution

Answer 62

the proposal that different functional parts of the brain, or modules, evolve at different rates in response to different selective pressures in the environment

evinced by selective overrepresentation of cortices relative to other cortices in brains across species

Question 63

foraging hypothesis

Answer 63

suggested by work of Timothy Clutton-Brock and Paul Harvey at Oxford; showed that allometric relationship between brain and body size differs in primates that forage for different types of food

high diet in ripe fruit = larger brains for their body size than diet of mostly leaves or insects

idea is that more learning and memory is required to locate temporal and spatial distribute of resources across a wide area

Question 64

machiavellan hypothesis

Answer 64

idea the thte demands of navigating a complex social group favored the evolution of cerebral and cognitive enhancement in primates

managing social groups relies on individual recognition, status assessment, and long-term memory for prior interactions, as well asa ability to infer the intetions of other individuals from their expressions and state of attention

Question 65

hominids

Answer 65

first distinguishing species from apes; special in that it had upright bipedal walking

Question 66

australopithecines

Answer 66

eastern/souther African fossil beds dated to 3-4 million years ago;
brain size of modern chimp; came after hominids

Question 67

homo habilis

Answer 67

“handy man”; 2.5 million years ago; 50% larger brain than ancesors; first human ancestor to produce crude stone tools

Question 68

homo erectus

Answer 68

diverged from earlier homo species 800,000 years ago; advancements in brain size in cognition; 1/3 bigger than early homo habilis; made stone tools of greater complexity and symmetry

persisted for about 2 million years and colonizing Africa and Eurasia; Homo erectus evolved further and tools progressed in sophitication

Question 69

Neanderthals

Answer 69

200,000 to 50,000 years ago in Western Europe and Middle East; bigger brains than us but also slightly heavier bodies;

Question 70

Homo sapiens

Answer 70

rose about 200,000 years ago, rapidly spread through world and drove out other hominid populations including Neanderthals to extinction

Question 71

spindle cells

Answer 71

specialized neurons within the anterior cingulate cortex and insula thought to help support advanced social cognition;

with enhancement in corticopsinal projections and size of neocortex (+ its projections), defined the superiority of the priimate brain

Question 72

rhesus monkeys and language

Answer 72

shown to ahve at least five food-related volcations including warble, harmonic arch, chirp, coo, grunt, and threat call

Question 73

recursive grammar

Answer 73

the ability to embed clauses meaningfully into sentences and to iterate these additions ad infinitum (in principle) in a manner that still makes sense

Question 74

context-free grammar

Answer 74

not a finite state grammar, the pattern does not determine the significance of the stimulus; a form X knows Y for exmaple will work for any terms X and Y

Question 75

finite-state grammar

Answer 75

in the phrasing X knows Y, the statement will not work for any specific terms X and Y; the pattern determines the significance of the stimulus. Each symbol encodes only one meaning.

Question 76

universal grammar

Answer 76

the idea that all languages must share some basic rules, or a deep structure which are transformed into surface structures of particular languags

Question 77

connectionist langauge theories

Answer 77

the general idea of associational linkages as a model for the lexical aspects of langauge; fails to give insight into key aspects of language like grammar and synthax but explains associational character of speech and has a strong foundation in statistical assocation

Question 78

vocabulary

Answer 78

the set of meanings of a signifcant number of words

Question 79

infants and phonology

Answer 79

infants can iinitially perceive and discriminate among all possible speech sounds that humans have and are not innately biased toward any particular phonemes;

fact that Native Japanese speakers cannot reliably tell the difference between the /r/ and /l sounds in English is evidence that this ability doesn’t persist

Question 80

baby talk

Answer 80

form of speech that adults instinctively use when speaking to very young children which emphasizes the phonetic distinctions in a language to a greater degree than nomrla speech, presumably helping the infant hear the phonetic characteristics of the langauge it’s learning

Question 81

perceptual magnet

Answer 81

tenendecy to group speech sounds based on core phonemic preferences in different languages; occurs in infants as early as 6 months

Question 82

Genie

Answer 82

girl who suffered from language deprivation until age 13 due to deranged parents; event after being saved she could never learn more than rudimentary langauge skills

Question 83

graphemes

Answer 83

symbols that represent words, syllables and phonemes; an example is the Chinese logogram

Question 84

phones

Answer 84

basic speech sounds timuli in any langauge

Question 85

phoneme

Answer 85

the perceptions that a speech sound elicits

Question 86

vowel sounds

Answer 86

most of the voice elements of speech and involve oscillations of the vocal cords; have a tonal quality since oscillations are periodic, eliciting the perception of pitch

Question 87

consonant sounds

Answer 87

invovles obstruction of oscillations in some way to create new sound; briefer and involve more rapid changes in sound energy over time, and are acoustically more complex

categorized according to site in vocal tract taht determines them or manner of articulation.

Question 88

contiuinty effect

Answer 88

filling in effect; implies that speech percepts are actively created by the human auditory and language processing systems; not simple neural translations or representations of physical stimuli at the ear

Question 89

coarticulation

Answer 89

phenomonen of vocal tract changes during speech overlapping in time and influencing one another

Question 90

grammar

Answer 90

the system of rules by which words are propoerly formed and combined

Question 91

synthax

Answer 91

themore general set of rules describing the combinations of grammatically correct wordse and phases that can, in turnb, be used to make meaningful sentences

Question 92

homonyms

Answer 92

words represented by teh same spelling and sound stimulus but w multiple meanings

Question 93

McGurk effect

Answer 93

demonstration that speech sounds are strongly influenced by what we see

Question 94

resonance

Answer 94

a plucked string vibrates at a particualar frequency depdning on length, tension, density and variety of other factors; they have a set of frequencies or vibratory modes; a model of speech sound

Question 95

fundamental frequency

Answer 95

the greatest vibration corresponds to the full length of a string and its vibratory mode is called this

Question 96

harmonic

Answer 96

virbratory modes following from fundamental frequency at the pattern of 1/x of the length of the string, depending on distance from fundamental frequency

Question 97

vocal cords

Answer 97

analogous to virbarty strings, responsible for vocalization with the vocal tract

Question 98

vocal tract

Answer 98

analogous to the filtering effects of the attached body of a stringed instrument like a guitar or violin; along with vocal cords responsible for vocalization

Question 99

laryx

Answer 99

also called glottis. Place of the vocal cords; expels from lungs air during voclalization.

Question 100

source-filter model

Answer 100

a generally accepted model for the production of speech sound stimuli that entails the vocal-fold vibrations as as source and the rest of the vocal tract as a dynamic filter

Question 101

formants

Answer 101

peaks of power taht are produced by the source-filter mechanism; produced by natural resonacnes of the vocal tract that filter the sound pressure oscillations produced by the larynx

Question 102

self-reflexive thought

Answer 102

the ability to consider one’s own being as an object, and thus subject to consideration in objective terms

Question 103

fugue states

Answer 103

transient states of confusion in which self-relevant knowledge is temporarily unavailable to consciousness and uncharacteristic and often self-destructive behaviors ensue

Question 104

self-reflection

Answer 104

an initial redirection of attentional focus from sensory events to internal thoughts, memories, feelings and visceral sensations

Question 105

default mode

Answer 105

brain areas activate in absense of explicit stimulation from or attention to the extrapersonal environment; the activity of these regions decrease during tasks that require attention to stimuli in extrapersonal space

occurs in the dorsal and ventromedial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate, and medial and lateral parietal cortex; correlated w/ EEG power in teh beta band

Question 106

self-reflection brain areas

Answer 106

medial PFC and parietal regions;

degree of activity in the medial PFC in response to teh words predicts which ones are remembered later; implicates specific neural signature fo self-referential memory encoding

Brodmann area 10 is recruited more strongly for judgments focused on oneself rather than others and thus medial PFC ius implicated strongly in autobiographical memories;

Question 107

brain areas concerning subjective feelings and tehs sorts of visercal cahnges that accompany emotional or painful stimuli

Answer 107

brain regions invovled in self-reflexive thought (medial PFC and parietal regions, especially Broddman 10) but also the orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and insula

more activity on rostral anterior cingulate when focusing on subjective arousal response to emotionally aversinve scenes rather than focus on spatial layout of the scenes

individual duifferens in performance on Lane’s Levels of Emotional Awareness scale (measuring how deeply and complexly emotions are beiing experience) aslo modulate anterior cingualte responses; anterior cingulate activty scales w/ autonomic measure of arousal and the subjective experience of the unpleasantness of pain, and is implicated in the regulation of pain modulation

reinforces idea of anterior cingulate as integrator of attentional and emotional functions, but w/ specifi goal of directing attention to one’s own emotional reactions

Question 108

insula

Answer 108

anterior part signals awareness of bodily sensations (interoception), such as alterations in respiration and heart rate during arousal

posteror and mid part are part of visceral processing network that includes brainstem autonomic centers, hypothalamus and the anterior cingulate

projects to orbitofrontal cortex, and receives connections particularly from right hemisphere

neocortical components of this hierarchy thought to represent bodily state in an integrated way

Question 109

embidoment

Answer 109

the sense of being localized within the body ; includes self-location (feeling of being at a particular locaiton in sapce) and egocentric frame of reference (navigating the wordlw/ references to the location of oneself and one’s own viewpoint)

individuals w/ right parietal damange may ignore or deny existence of left side of their body (neglect syndrom)

can experience sensations from amputated body part (phantom limb syndrome)

agnosognosia - deny that their body is suffering from a particular ailment

exsperience feeling of disembodiment

implciatd in extrastraite body area (part of extrastriate visual area), engaged when inviduals visually process human bodies of body parts, imagine changes in position of body part, or adopt a third-person perspective for visualizing their own body

Question 110

temporoparietal junction

Answer 110

a multisensory area at border between the temporal and parietal lobes and surrounding the posterir terminus of the Sylvian fissure; linked to out-of-body experiencesx

Question 111

fusiform face area

Answer 111

fusiform gyrus; to some degree specialized for encoding info about faces

has a pathway for person recognition and for dynamica facial features

Question 112

person recognition

Answer 112

processing invariant facial featurs and linking face representations w/ semantic knowledge about individuals and their names

pathyway for it connects fusiform gyrus w/ lateral temporal neocortex, the temporal pole, and the hippocampus, where biographical information is access and names rertrieved

must iteract w/ dynamical facial features pathway

Question 113

dynamical facial features pathway

Answer 113

for emotional expression, mouth movements, and gaze direction

includes fusiform gyrus, superior temporal sulcus, amygdala, and other limbic forebrain structures

interacts with person recognition pathway of fusiform face area

Question 114

prosopagnosia

Answer 114

condition involving damage to ventral regions of temporal lobe; have difficulty recognizing individuals according to their facial features, but often evaluate facial expressions correctly;

alternatively, those w. damage to amuygdala or superior temporal sulcus have difficulty evaluating emotional expression or eye gaze direction, but can recognize and name individuals normally

Question 115

biological motion lcosu

Answer 115

processed in the primary visual and extratriate cortices to the temporal lobe in the ventral “what” pathway for visual information processing; info about location and motion relayed primarily to the parietal lobe in the more dorsal “where” pathway

super temproral sulclus preferentially signals body actions that are meaningful and goal-directed and human/robotic motion as opposed to, say, pendulum swing

Question 116

empathy model

Answer 116

four primary components
1) emotion sharing between indivudlas is based on automatic perception action coupling and shared somatic0emtoinal representations that rely on processing in the somatosensory cortex and limib forebrain regions

Not sure if mirror neurons invovled; insula for disgust observation/experience.

2) self0awanress and the distinction b/t self and other involve processing in parietal lobes, prefrontal cortex, and insula.
3) mental flexibility: ability to adopt perspective of another individual, recruiting medial and dorsolateral prfrontal regions
4) emotion regulation - operates on the emotional and somatic states generated by engaging executive control mechanisms in the anterior cingulate and lateral/ventromedial PFC

Question 117

sympathy

Answer 117

feelings of pity or cocnern for another individual’s plight

Question 118

empathy

Answer 118

capacitiy to comprehend and resonate w/ another’s emotional experience

Question 119

metarepresention

Answer 119

ability to abstract the elemnts of a social situation

Question 120

location change tasks

Answer 120

like Piaget’s Maxi task

Question 121

unexpected contents task

Answer 121

object placed i n a container; unbeknownst to third party; object is replaced by another; participant must then indciate which object third party thinks is in the container

Question 122

perspective taking

Answer 122

ability to flexibly adopt the persictive of another individual and distinguish that viewpoint from one’s own

Question 123

mirror neurons

Answer 123

present in the premotor cortex of the macaque monkey which increase their actiity not only whena agrasphing action is selected and performed, but also when that or a related action is passively viewed whilbe ing performed by other animals

found in humans in a region of rostral inferior parietal cortex that projects to premotor area F5, implicating a frontoparietal mirroe network

medial temporal info about biological movement is transmitted to the parietal component of this system and something inhibits the parietal system form enacting the motion

role in social cognition is speculative

Question 124

social refernecing

Answer 124

the ability of a preson to interpt the body gestures and facil and vocal expressions of others to determine how to deal w/ an ambiguous or novel situation (visual cliff)

Question 125

shared attention

Answer 125

allocation of processing resources toward an object or region of space cued by another individual

a posner variant uses positon of the eyes in a face stimulus as a salient cue about wehre a fase is looking; task is to respond to a subseuqnt target that appears either in teh cued location or in the opposite hemifield;

reaction time used to quantify whether gaze shift was attentded by participant or not

valid cues improve performance and elicit larger-amplitude ERP components, implying attentional modulation of visual procewssing in extrastriate regions of cortex

invalid cues have slow reaction times, later enchancement of P300, suggesting need to update working emory processes due to unexpected result

Question 126

trustworthiness

Answer 126

worthiness of trust that must be asssessed by individuals; patients w/ damage to orbitofrontal cortex can’t assess trustwrothness well and so are susceptible to deceptive financial scams

more activtiyt in amygdla and insula when patients don’t trust
more activity in orbitofrontal cortex for who patients do trust

eye gaze shifts also affect appraisals

explicit judgments of trusthworthness recruit more procesisng in the superior temporal csulcus

Question 127

social cateogyr information

Answer 127

processed rapidly and automatically when we encounter new poeople, even when that information isn’t critical

more amygdala activity w/ respect to unfamilar African American faces through the IAT and startle eye-blink resposnes (indicative of negatively valenced evaluations)

african americans ahve implicit bias, too, but habituiation is faster

enahnced fusiform activity for people in own race prob due to familiarity w/ in-group members or greater individuation

fa

Question 128

two stage model of group stereotypes

Answer 128

1) that anterior cignulate activity relfects continual monitoring fo conflict during info processing
2) prefrontal regions are subsequently recruited once a need for conflict resolution is detected

Question 129

error-related negativity

Answer 129

a component of ERPs sensitive to info-processing conflicts that lead to response errors, and is locaized to anterior cingulate gyrus and offers potential neural index of ongoing conflict mointoring

Question 130

rapid classifcation task

Answer 130

priming of objects by African American fac es facilitates detection of weapons and impair detection of tools, and no effect for Causasions

errors suggest stroop-like response

Question 131

james-lange feedback theory

Answer 131

An eliciting stimulus 1) directly causes a bodily reaction, which 2) feeds back into the brain 3) to generate an emotional feeling 4). According to this theory no specialized brain region for emotion exists, and bodily reactions and feelings have a one-to-one functional correspondence.

Question 132

cannon-bard theory

Answer 132

input from the emotion-provoking stimuli 1) is directed in parallel from the thalamus in the diencephalon to the cortex directly (2b) or through the thalamus( (2a, 3b) for the generation of feelings (4), and from the thalamus to the hypothalamus (2a) for bodily expression (3a)

based on criticism that the reationcs of the autnomic nervous system were too undifferentiated to yield the variety of emotional states that we experience, and that neurohormonal feedaack from teh body’s endocrine organis to the brain take too long to account for the abrupt onset of emotions

argued that the autonomic nervous system coordinate’s teh body’s fight or flight response;

Question 133

sham rage

Answer 133

phenomenon that electrical stimulation fhte hypothalamus could elicit emotional reactions in a cat, specifically hissing, growling and attack behaviors directed randomly toward innocuous targets

Question 134

Papex circuit for emotional processing

Answer 134

extended Cannon-Bard by proposing that the cingulate gyrus mediated emotional feelings;

stream of thought (cortical route) - carrying from the thalamus to the sensory neocortex (activated by memories) to the cingulate gyrus;

straeam of feeling (subcoritcal route) - carried sensory info to the mamillary bodies of teh hypothalamus, which proejcts to the cingulate gyrus via the anterior thamalus

close the loop - nerons in cingulate gyrus proejct back down to the hypothalamus by way of the hippocampus through the fornix to the hypothalamus again

Question 135

Kluver-Bucy syndrome

Answer 135

hallmark of this is the inability to evaluate the emotional and omtivational significance of objects in the environment, particularly by sense of sight

involved loss of fear, visual agnosia, hyperorality, altered food preferences, hypersexuality, and increased exploratory effect

involves removal of temporal lobes in a rhesus moneky, helping Papex circuit idea because of implication of hippocampus; however instead provided backdrop for limbic theory of emotion

Question 136

limbic system theory

Answer 136

theory of emotion involving the limbic system

centered was the hippocampus, which was the seat of emotional feelings and integrator of emotional reactions

included triune brain w/ core reptilian component (brainstem), a paleomammalian component (limbic system) and a neomamallian component (neocortex)

considred to distinguish and link brain regions ocncerned w the external environment (sensory systems), leading to visceromotor responses to stimuli. The functions of the system link together Papez’s stream fo thought and of feeling.

quite vague and disorganized theory, but very impactful because of the brain regions whose emotional functions have stood the test of time

Question 137

limbic system

Answer 137

system organized for the limbic system theory involving all strucutres of the Papez circuit (thalamus, hypothalamus, cingulate gyrus, and hippocampus) as well as Broca’s limbic lobe (including pyriform, rhinal, subcallosal and paraspenial cortices) and subcortical nuclei including the septum and portions of the basal ganglia - as well as the amygdala dna orbitofrontal cortex

more organized conceptualization divides limbic system between dorsal cognitive (cogntiive and executive functions) built and ventral emotional belt (involved in emotioanl and olfactory functions)

Cognitive belt: parahippocampal gyrus, mammilary body, anterior nucleus of thalamus, and hippocampus

emotional ventral belt: orbital and medial PFC< amygdala, ventral basal ganglia, hypothalamus,

uhhh

Question 138

right-hemisphere hypothesis

Answer 138

theory that the right hemispshere is specialized for processing many aspects fo emotion

Question 139

prosody

Answer 139

the inflections, rhythm and stress in vocal sounds; suggested to be emphasized in the right hemisphere;

Question 140

valence hypothesis

Answer 140

theory that the left and right hemispheres are specialized for positive and negative emotions, respectively,

a more hybridized version has right posterior sensory regions dominant for evaluations of all emotions, but the experience and e3xpression of emotions is assymetrical

Question 141

anhedonia

Answer 141

symptom of depression related to reduction of the leftward prefrontal assymetry. Since the asymmetry does not remit w/ treatment, may be trait marker of depression.

Question 142

temperament

Answer 142

individual’s general predisposition to experience events as pleasant or unpleasant

Question 143

categorical theories

Answer 143

regard each emotion as a discrete entity and typically distinguish a small set of bsaic emotions froma larger pool of complex ones (learned, socially and culturally shaped)

Question 144

dimensional theories

Answer 144

consider each emotion a point on a continuum that varies along two or more fundamental axes (usually arousal and valence)

Question 145

vector models

Answer 145

ordering emotions along axes of positive and negative falene, that are oriented at 90 degrees and meet at a common neutral end point, forming a boomerang shape

usually arousal is important, but concepts of apprach and avoidance can be used as the axes instead

Question 146

circumplex models

Answer 146

ordering emotions around the circumference of a circum at the itnersection of two orthogonal axes of arousal and valence

Question 147

component process theories

Answer 147

emphasize role of cognitive appraisl in evaulating the emotional meaning of events; suggests that emotions are orgnaized in the brain according to their overlap in recruiting specific appraisal mechanisms

Question 148

dyslexia

Answer 148

reading problem neurological disorder; runs in families a lot

Question 149

the language gene

Answer 149

FOXP2

Question 150

Broca’s aphasia

Answer 150

caused by damage tot eh ventral posterior region of the frontal lobe; cannot express thoughts appropriately because the rules of grammar and synthax have ben disrupted by the lesion in the frontal lobe

even though they produce nonsense symmalbes, transpose words, and generally utter structurally incoherent utteracnes, there’s some sensible meaning

production aphasia, or motor aphasia

Question 151

Wernicke’s aphasia

Answer 151

sensory, or receptive aphasia, left side posterior and superior temporal lobe damge,

fluent speech, little spontaeous repittion, adequate syntax, adequate grammar, contrived or innapropriate words, comprehension not intact

words make no sense since cannot correclty link words and meanings

Question 152

conduction aphasia

Answer 152

arise from lesions to pathways connecting relevant temporal and frontal regions, and can lead to inability to produce approporiate responses to heard communication, even though communication is understood by speaker

Question 153

split brain research and language

Answer 153

showed laterization of language dominance, but right hemispheric activity seems to allow spelling out and interpretation of nonorthogonal stimui,

right brain does emotional coloring, left does lexical and synthatic language

right does spatial, left does writing and speech, etc.

Question 154

stereognosis

Answer 154

haptic perception

Question 155

Penfield’s islations

Answer 155

perisylvian frontal, temporal, and parietal cortices implicated

huge variabllity in language localization from patient to patient; bilingual patients might store other langauge in totally differnt part of brain

Question 156

aprosidia

Answer 156

deficiencies of prosody usually assocaited w/ right hemisphere damage; robotic speech

Question 157

context in neural processing of langauge

Answer 157

N400 response to a word read silently enhanced if the word is semantically inappropriate

idea is that N400 reflects stumbling over and reprocessing of information that doesn’t make sense in comarpison to semantic flow that is usually experienced;

words used frequenly elicit smaller N400 waves than uncommon waves;

homonym activation is lower in sentences that clarify meanings than in those that don’t

Question 158

somatic marker hypothesis

Answer 158

scheme by which bioregulatory processes, including those related to emtion influence reasoning on complex circumstances

somatic markers are internal represenations of bodily states that indicate the personal consequences of actions associated w/ particular situations; the history of one’s emotional responses to action outcomes triggered by similar situations is represented by somatic states; these are stored as long-term dispositions or biases

the VMPFC is instrumental in learning and retaining these associations b/t environmental events and the somatic states based on prior experience

when contemplating actions, VMPFC reactivates relevant somatic states and biases behavior to determine whether contemplated action will be beneficial or detrimental

somatic states can be reactivated either consciously or unconsciously via a body loop or an as-if loop

body loo- VMPFC engages corticolimbic structures taht induce actual motoric and visceral changes, that are fed back to the somatosensory and insular cortices

as-if loop in which VMPFC influences somatosensory cortices while bypassing the body proper;

Question 159

atnicipatory emotions

Answer 159

occur prior to decision and can help guide decision mkaing by influencing risk and reward valuation

Question 160

expected emotions

Answer 160

result from outcomes of decisions, leading to future expectations of feelings based on responses to similar outcomees

Question 161

immediate emotions

Answer 161

influence diecion making simply becauase they occur at same time decision is being made

Question 162

contextual fear conditioning

Answer 162

hippocampus is likely site for mediation;

Question 163

fear extinction

Answer 163

through repreated presentaion of teh CS w/o the US (foot shock), the animal learns that the CS has cahnged, causign fear extinction

depends on integrity of The VMPFC. Rats w damage to it take much longer to extinguish a conditioned fear response than do controls.

Question 164

fight or flight response

Answer 164

piloerection, pupillary dilation, increased blood pressure, ncreased heart and breathing rate

Question 165

fear conditionin

Answer 165

amygdala occurs fear conditioning through mediation through the direct amygdala that signals LTP within 15 milliseconds of CS onset in some cells

w/ bilateral amygdala damange, diminished conditoned fear repsonses, including fear-potentiated startle and skin conductance respones; these persist even when the patient is able to state the predictive properties of the CS

also invovled:
anterior cingulate cortex, for example, not implicated w/ fear learning so much as it does attention that are creuited at various points during fear trainingh.

Question 166

spreading activation theory

Answer 166

each mood is assocaited w/ particular nodes in the brain that represent basic emotion categories; expereinces or stimuli that share the emotions affiliated w/ the mood become linked to these nodes; when a given mood is experienced, the emotion nodes associated w/ it become activated and this spreads automatically to related memories and concepts according to the strength of their assocation

Question 167

flashbulb memory

Answer 167

all the vivid details of an emotionally fraught episode that are registered graphically in the mind’s ee

Question 168

memory modulation hypoethesis

Answer 168

emphasizes role of amygdala in enhancing consoliation processes in other regions of the brain after an emotional episode has occurred.

includes regions in the medial temporal lobe and the dorsoalater and ventrolaterl PFC;

arousal dimension is the primary force behind the neuromodulatory effects of the amygdala; releases hormones and projects directly to relevant brain areas

Question 169

epinephinr, norepinephrine, cortisol

Answer 169

stress hormones secreted from teh adrenal gland; cortisol crosses blood-brain barrier and the other two activate visceral sensory endings in the periphery

effects are maximal during a period of memory consolidation, suggesting an explantion for why moderate stress is beneficial for the encoding of new memories;

generally enhances emotional memory, but also generalized to nonemotional memory as wel.

Question 170

propanolol

Answer 170

adrenergic-blocker that when adminstered prior to an narrative w/ emotional content, reduces memory detail memory compared to those receiving a placebo

Question 171

amygdala

Answer 171

connected also to the prefrontal cortex intefaces (including anterio cingulate, ventromedial PFC< ventrolateral PFC< and orbitofrontal cortex) for atention;

connected to medial temporal and ventgral frontal lobe for emotional enhancement of memory

amygdala receives input from late stages along ventral srtam, but feeds back to multiple stages of it, including VI; provides a mean s for emotional states to access and tune perceptual representations

a center that shuttles information back and forth from subcorticaland cortical pathways to initiate and coordiante emotional reactions, incluidng output to the hypothalamus and brainstem autonomic control centers that modulate the visceral changes accompanying various emotional states

Question 172

emotional oddball task

Answer 172

participants detect attentional targets that appear rarely among a stream of rfequent stimuli;

parciipatns distracted by pictures either emotioanlly arousing or neutral;

shows attentional reasons (dorsal stream) is suppressed when emotional stimuli unexpectedly appear, and emotional regions are supprssed when task-relevant attentional targets are processed

dovetail w/ evidence showing reciprocal engagement of dorsal and ventral sectors of PFC for attentional and emotional functions, respectively

Question 173

working memory maintenance function

Answer 173

short-term memory

Question 174

refreshing

Answer 174

reactivation by simlpy thinking about a piece of info

Question 175

rehearsal

Answer 175

a more laborous iterative process for reactivation

Question 176

working memory load

Answer 176

number of items held in working memory at a time

Question 177

manipulations

Answer 177

opertions that organize, associate, and transofmr the representations held in working memory

Question 178

Baddeley model

Answer 178

memory buffers and a control system. phologoicalloop. visuospatial sketchpad (with a cache and a inner stribe). episodic buffer (integrated, multimodal representatiosn)

Question 179

Cowan model

Answer 179

first level of working memory constsis of long term memory rerpesentations in an activated state; working memory represenations for diff types of info are all head in the same store rather than difference ones.

Second level consists of activated rerpesenatiosn taht fall within tehf ocus of attention. Attention can hold 4 items at a time. So the limit is in the focus of attention, not the # of activated represenations.

Question 180

phases of working memory

Answer 180

1) encoding phase: one or more items incorporated
2) delay phase: incoded information is maintained in wokring memory for several seconds

response phase: action executed on basis of maintained information

Question 181

delay activity neurostuff

Answer 181

delay activity in the brain persists foe entire length of delay for whole length of del;ayed resposne or match to sample tasks; increases as a function of working memory load; attributed to active maintainenance of info within working memory

regions: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex,

more activity for correct than incorrect trials

difficult to ensure that it reflecs only maintenance rather than encoding or response related processes or even a specific action within the acitiy

retrospective code (representatiosn concerning what’s come in) vs prospective code (action to be made during the response phase)

Question 182

phonological similarity effect

Answer 182

the fact that working memory for letters is worse when the letters sound similar. Suggests store that maintains rerpesentations in a phonologiacal format

Question 183

word length effect

Answer 183

fact that people can hold more words in working memory when the words are short, than when they are long. Assuem that there is indeed an articualtory rehearsal rpocess and that complex words slow it down (eh)

Question 184

phological store neuro

Answer 184

linked to left inferior parietal cortex and the posteriro part of the left inferior frotnal gyrus (broca’s area) for articuartory rehearsal

Question 185

articulatory rehearsal process

Answer 185

posterior part of teh left inferior frontal gyrus (broca’s area)

Question 186

graphemic memory

Answer 186

left inferior temporal cortex

Question 187

confirmations of theories

Answer 187

rehearsal and storage components of working memory dependon differnet brain regions, confirming baddely’s in some way

baddeley does not postualte a specizlied semantic buffer, but it can be easily be adapted to the theory to accoutn for semantic working memory findings

the association of semantic memory w/ left lateral temporal cortex - a region assumed to deal with long-term semantic knowledge - fits cowan’s model

baddeley’s provides a better account of dissociations b/t rehearsla and storage components, and Cowan’s model is a better account o delay-period activity in posterior regions associated w/ long-term memory storage

Question 188

semantic memory

Answer 188

anterior left inferior frontal gyrus is assocaited w/ semantic processing and retrieval and so is likely to mediate rehearsal

left lateral temporal cortex is likely to be involved in storage rather than rehearsal

Question 189

spatial working memory

Answer 189

invovles dorsolateral regions and frontal eye fields; posterially, involves the intraparietal sulucs

The frontal eye fields maintain oculomotor coordiantes; the intraparietal sulcus maintains spatial locations.

frontal eye for rehearsal and intraparietal for storage by Baddeley’s mdoel

In terms of Cowan’s both frontal eye fields and intrapariel could be holding long-term rperesenations which are activated during working memory

Question 190

object working memory

Answer 190

superior temporal sulclus to mediate retention of color information during delay period; category specific;

ex. medial fusiform gyrus has greater delay period activity viewing houses rather than lateral fusiform gyrus shows opposite effect

the control of object mainteneance involves the right inferior frontal regions

Question 191

working memory in other modalities tend to invovle unimodal sensory regions examples

Answer 191

auditory cortex for auditory working memory and sematosensory cortex for somatic sensory wokring memory

Question 192

content-based model

Answer 192

ventrlateral regions of the prefrontal cortex are primarily involved in object working memory, weheras dorsolateral regions are more invovled in spatial working memory

consistent w/ evidence that the ventral pathway for o ject processing projects mainly to ventrolateral prefrontal regions, whereas the dorsal path projects to dorsolateral PFC regions

evidence that DLPFC can hurt object working memory and vice versa hurts this idea

in general dorsolateral are assumed to mediate general control over working memory operations for all modalities

Question 193

process-based model

Answer 193

ventrolateral PFC regions are primarily invovled in simple maintaencance operations, whereas dorsolateral regions are involved in processing involving monitoring and manipulatoing info within working memory

supported by evidence of more adctivity in the DLPFC when alphabetizing a sequence rather than when maintaing an ordered sequence of letters.

in general dorsolateral are assumed to mediate general control over working memory operations for all modalities

Question 194

priming

Answer 194

the alteration of performacne as a result of preceding experience

Question 195

direct priming

Answer 195

where the prime and the target stimulus are the same (envelope and envelope)

Question 196

indirect priming

Answer 196

where teh stimuli are different (eg envelope and letter)

Question 197

perceptual priming

Answer 197

the test cue and the target cue are perceptually related

connected w/ reptietion suppression in the occipiotemporal and prefrontal regions

Question 198

conceptuall priming

Answer 198

where the test cue and the target are assocaitely or semantically related

more dependint on frontal parietal and temporal cortices

Question 199

semantic priming

Answer 199

occurs when the prime and target are seamntically related

Question 200

diff b/t semantic and conceptual priming

Answer 200

In conceptual priming, the prime and target are teh same and it is the test cue, not the prime that is sematnically related to the target. (There is no test cue in semantic priming because it’s indirect).

Question 201

delay conditioning

Answer 201

the CS is still present when the US starts and both terminate at the same time (delays departure of CS until when US leaves)

dependent priamrily on cerebellum - especially the interpsitus nucelus and the cerebellar cortex

Question 202

trace conditioning

Answer 202

a brief time interval exists bt the end of the CS and teh start of the US (cs must leave some trace in memory for the connection to happen)

dependent on hippocampal integrity, which is strange but defined by awareness of conditioning

Question 203

repetition suppression

Answer 203

where previously encountered (primed) stimuli result in smaller hemodynapic respones in frontal and posterior brain regions than novel stimuli;

suggests that it facilitates several stages of stimulus processing by enhancing cognitive operatiosn noramlly required by a task rather than by recruiting additional processes

Question 204

masked priming

Answer 204

where conscious awareness is prevented by an interfering mask or noise

Question 205

spreading activation

Answer 205

activation spread thourhg network according to stregnth of associations b/t neurons encoding concepts

Question 206

modification theory

Answer 206

priming reflects an alteration in prexisting memory represenations

when a word is encountered, the corresponding node in the semantic network is activated. This would acocount for enhanced processing of teh world when encountere again.

Question 207

acquisition theory

Answer 207

priming entails the creation of new representations

Question 208

fatigue model

Answer 208

whena stimulus is repeated, all of the initially resposnive neurons show a proportionally equivalent reduciton in their repsonses. So the mean response of the population is reduced, but a distribution of responeds across neurons is not affected. But doesn’t account for priming effects like increased speed and accuracy.

Question 209

sharpening model

Answer 209

when stimulus is repeated, neurons carrying critical info about the stimulus continue to fire vigorously, whereas neurons that are not essential for processing the stimulus respond elss and less, leading to reduced hemodynamic response

only assumes reduciton in noncritical neurons. Lateral inhibition seems to involve this.

Question 210

facilitation model

Answer 210

priming via repeition suppression reflects faster procesing of stimuli due to shrter latencies and/or shorter duration of neural firing. When integrated over several sectionds, could result in reduced hemodhynamic resposnes.

Question 211

motor skill learning

Answer 211

caudate, putamen during implicit learning

disrupted by basal ganglia damage