Speed Round Flashcards
1
Q
recursive processing
A
neural processing that enables reflection on other neural processes, arguably allowing humans or other animals to be aware of themselves and their mental content
28
2
Q
mirror test
A
a test that supposedly determines whether a non-human animal sees its reflection in a mirror as an image of itself; taken as a measure of self awareness
can just show, or put dye on the animal,
28
3
Q
metacognition
A
knowing that one knows something
28
4
Q
high-frequency brain oscillations
A
most widely discussed novel framework for understanding consciousness; although primal basis of brain oscillations is well understood, the reason for their variety and behavior in different circumstances isn’t
emphasis on high frequency oscillations of 40Hz and higher, and more broadly on synchronized brain activity
28
5
Q
blindsight
A
the ability of people who are blind, usually because of damage to their cortex, to identify the properties of simple visual stimuli when forced to guess
probably possible due to subcortical visual processing of information in the stimulus abetted by implicit processing in the extrastriate cortex
28
6
Q
scotoma
A
the area of blindness in the visual field created when a lesion in Vi causes blindsight
28
7
Q
coma
A
brain state of indviiduals who have suffered brain injury that leaves them in a deeply unconscious state defined by apparent unresponsiveness to sensory stimuli
usually do to compromised function of brainstem and other deep brain structures such that normal interaction of these w/ the cerebral cortex is interrupted
28
8
Q
binocular rivalry
A
fact that when a particualr stimulus pattern is presented to one eye and a discordant one is produced to another, the same region of visual space is perceived to be alternatively occupied by the two patterns
28
9
Q
inattentional blindness
A
change blindness; the noraml inability to see a particular alteration in a changing scene because the change is not noticed
28
10
Q
attentional blinks
A
a cognitive phenomenon, typically observed in a rapidly presented stream of stimuli, in which teh ability to successfully report a second target stimulus occurring withiin 100 to 300 milliseconds of a successfully reported first target in teh stream is decreased.
28
11
Q
bistable figures
A
visual stimli that elicit perceptual changes that fluctuate back and forth between the perception one of two different objects
28
12
Q
perceptual aftereffects (consciousness)
A
same inducing stimulus can be presented w/o awareness by masking or stimulus crowding during presentation. Lack of awarenss of teh inducing stimulus doesn’t abolish the aftereffect, implying that visual cortical neurons sensitive to orientation are just as active when subjects are aware of the inducing stimulus as when they are not.
28
13
Q
reticular activating system
A
a collection of nuceli in the central region of the brainstem involved in arousal and motivation, implicated in the states of sleep
includes the cholinergic nuclei of the pons-midbrain junction, the noradrenergic cells of teh locus coeruleus, and the serotonergic neurons in the raphe nuclei; these nuclei are in turn controlled by circadian clocks in the suprachiasmatic nucleus and hypothalamus
these clocks are entrained to the light-dark cycles taht define day and night
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14
Q
delayed gratification and development
A
part of an executive system not fully developed even in adolescence;
the younger the child, the greater the problem w/ delaying gratification; time taken to delay gratification is positively correlated w/ academic achievement later
by 6, children will often wait as long as 25 minutes for the larger reward
15
Q
compare youth w/ adults risk neurophysiology
A
both age groups:
- increased activation in orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex making high-risk as opposed to low-risk decisions
- increase activation bilaterally in ventraolateral prefrontal cortex when receiving negative as opposed to positive feedback
- however, children show MORE activation of anterior cingulate cortex during risk engagement, and MORE activation of the orbitofrontal cortex when processing negative feedback
consistent w/ idea that circuitry relying on the dorslateral PFC and the orbitofrontal cortex and its connectyions w/ the anterior cingulate cortex may not be fully developed by the age of 12
16
Q
compare youth w/ adults rules
A
at age 2 can sort objects according to one rule,
at age 3 can sort w/ 2 rules easily
but difficulty w two incompatible rules as in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task
by 5 can handle this, too
behavioral changes in ability seems to track increase to adult levels in grey matter in 1st) the orbitofrontal cortex, 2nd) the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, and 3rd) the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
17
Q
visual habituation paradigm
A
infants shown repeated examples of one numerosity until the time they spent looking at each exemplar decreased, indicating that they’d been habituated to the number
tested w/ alternating exmplars of the familiar and a new numerosity; if the infants looked longer at the exemplars of the novel numerosity, can assume that they have discriminated between the two
18
Q
baby numerosity facts
A
babies a few day old seem to discriinate arrays of dots or other objects based on number
human infants can also manipulate numerical representsations in rudimentary calculations, looking longer at outcomes of eevents when the result is mathematically impossible and violates expectations
19
Q
baby language facts
A
left hemisphere is already the locus of speech processing - better sound discrimination from right ear, more activation in the left,
strong evidence for language circuity arising from developmental programs that precede experience
adults show posterior temporoparietal ERP differences between “open class” words (nouns and verbs) and “closed class” words that convey grammatical relationships (prepositions, determiners, and conjunctions);
children understand meaning of open/closed class words at 20 months, but show no ERP distinction; by 28-30 months - when children begin to speak in short sentences - the distinctoin is present. By age 3, children are speaking in complete sentences and employing closed class words correctly, and ERps show the mature pattern of left-hemisphere assymetry to closed-class words. All of this indicates that brain systems for language become more specialized as you go.
Early development injuries can be recovered from where other parts of brain take on funtions.
20
Q
preposition
A
a grammatically distinct class of words whose most central members characteristically express spatial or temporal relations (such as the English words in, under, towards, before) or serve to mark various syntactic functions and semantic roles (such as the English words of, for).
21
Q
determiner
A
a word, phrase or affix that occurs together with a noun or noun phrase and serves to express the reference of that noun or noun phrase in the context. That is, a determiner may indicate whether the noun is referring to a definite or indefinite element of a class, to a closer or more distant element, to an element belonging to a specified person or thing, to a particular number or quantity, etc. Common kinds of determiners include definite and indefinite articles (like the English the and a[n]), demonstratives (like this and that), possessive determiners (like my and their), and quantifiers (like many, few and several).
22
Q
conjunction
A
a part of speech that connects words, sentences, phrases or clauses. A discourse connective is a conjunction joining sentences. This definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a “conjunction” must be defined for each language. In general, a conjunction is an invariable grammatical particle, and it may or may not stand between the items it conjoins.
23
Q
near infra-red spectroscopy
A
method where optical signals related to brain activity are obtained through skull w/ laser diodes taped to the subject’s head
measures differences in light absorption of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin
particularly practical w/ infants since their skulls and scalp tissues are relativey thin and thus produce less light scattering than adult heads. Method is protable, less expensive than fMRI, safer than PET and free from the motion artifacts that infants who can’t stay still wouldn’t be able to follow.
24
Q
infant emotion facts
A
- by 3 months of age, infants can distinguish between frowning and smiling expressions in adults
- by 4-7 months can differentiate surprise from happiness
- ## visual cliff paradigm (shallow side vs deep side) shows that infants in first year of life use their mother’s emotional expressions to make decisions about potentially perilous actions
25
infant social cognition facts
- routine exposure to faces improves discrimination of upright vs inverted faces (6 - 12 months), own race vs !own race, own species vs !own species (9 months to discriminate b/t chimps and people)
- already track faces from birth, showing that they are genetically privileged
-
26
false belief task
demonstrates egocentrism
task where children 3 - 7 are presented w/ story about a boy named Maxi and bar of chocolate; maxi places chocolate into kitchen cabinet and then leaves; Maxi's mother comes in and moves it to the refrigerator; children then asked where Maxi will look later
Children at 3 claim maxi will look in fridge because he wants chocolate; 5 year old will get it right
27
autism
a disorder that affects about 3-6 in every 1000 children and involves many social deficits
individuals
- avoid physical and eye contact
- heightened interest in the inanimate world, often fixating on particular objects
- fail theory of mind tasks beyond age of 4
- fail to recognize biological motion
- focus less on eyes and more on mouth or body when shown images of people
social cognition brain areas including amygdala, superior temporal sulcus and the fusiform gyrus are dysfunctional in autistic people;
autistic people show less frontal and amygdala activation;
autistic children have less activity in the fusiform gyrus and higher precuneus are when matching photos w/ same facial expression
28
William's Syndrome
a genetic disorder characterized by distinctive facial features, mild retardation, an unusually cheerful demeanor, and a talkative personality
normal social cognition, orienting to faces and successfully passing theory of mind tests
evidence for the social brain hypothesis, but evidence that Down syndrome people have impaired face processing but normal theory of mind suggests that segregation of social cognition may occur postnatally
29
infantile amnesia
evidence that declarative is late to develop, the phenomenon where infants have almost no explicit memories despite havin an enormous ability to acquire nondeclarative memories
30
elicited imitation paradigm
infants observe as an experimenter enacts an event using props
ex. experimenter uses rod to roll a car down a ramp, causing a light to turn on.
infant then observed for how many operations it reconstructs compared to a control
9 month age shows reliable ordered recall of action sequences, and robustness increases w/ age
infants as young as 13 months can remember 2- and 3-step sequences for as long as 8 months under the appropriate conditions
so even though adults don't remember anything, ifnants are forming robust memories that last for months and are influneced by the same factors that affect adult memories
theorized that children have a pre-explicit memory system prior to an explicit memory system that develops with the inferior temporal cortex
children begin to show more sophisticated mnemonic strategies as they enter preschool
31
preferential looking technique
infants shown two visual displays on side by side computer screen; if they show the same thing, infants show no preference. Visual acuity in the infant can be determined by varying the spatial frequency of alternating stripses and contrasting them w/ plain gray squares
32
crossmodal preference paradigm
infants shown two visual displays, one of which matches information presented in a second sensory modality; infants prefer the matching stimulus
33
visual habituation paradigm
infants shown stimulus repeatedly until their looking time decreases; new stimulus presented in alternation w/ old stimulus and infants who look longer at new stimulus are taken to have discriminated the old from the new.
34
violation of expectancy method
infants witness an event that results in something impossible or possible; looks longer at impossible outcome, etc.
35
high amplitude sucking and head turning
in studies of infant speech and sound discrimination, infants sucking / head moving behavior in response to change in habituated stimulus is used to measure discrimination between phonemes, etc.
36
conjugate mobile paradigm
string attached to infant's leg and connected to mobile above infant in crib; infant kicking produces an effect the infant will like; the mobile is later replaced; helps measure memory as well as influence of the similiarity of the test mobile
37
baby attention facts
posterial parietal and subcortical underpinnings of attention already operative in first year of life.
as age increases, higher level control systems for attention emerge
obligatory attention movement probably due to development of tonic inhibition of the colliculus via the substantia nigra;
at 2 months, can use middle temporal (MT) motion areas of the extrastriate cortex;
by 3-4 make anticipatory eye movements and can learn sequences of eye movements
4 months, can inhibit looking at a stimulus if they ahve learned that a more attractrive stimulus will soon appear somewhere else
38
baby perception facts
newborn's experience of world is actually quite organized
poor acuity ata first, but nearly adult level by 8 months
color vision also bad, but almost adultlike by 4-5 months old
looming response (depth cue) - infants respond to objects whose size increase rapidly by blinking as young as 1 month;
by 4 months, can use binocular disparity to determine distance of nearby objects
by 6-7 months, additional monocular cues to depth such as occlusion and relative size also used
can integrate separate stimulus as young as 4 months and improve from there
long-term memory for uterine sounds demonstrated; also some prenatal chemosensory learning
39
IQ differences among adolescents
superior IQ performance adolescents had thinner cortex in the superior prefrontal gyri but rapid incrase in cortical thickness relative to rest of sample
40
age brain activity relationship
brain activity becomes more focal and less diffuse over development
41
object permancence
babies less than 8 months of age seem to not understand that objects don't cease to exist when they move out of view;
however was demonstrated that looking behavior by 3-month-old infants suggests that out-of-sight objects do remain in mind
42
piaget's stages
1) sensorimotor stage (0 - 2 years) - infants dominated by reflex responses with learning and intelligengce guided and constrained by sensory/motor abilities; trial and error learning
2) preoperational stage (2 - 7): children develop representational or symbolic abilities; conventional and self-generated symbols in their play behavior
demonstrated egocentrism and conservation
3) ( 7 - 12) concrete operations stage; children begin to reason about the world, can explain why rearranging objects has no effect on # of objects in a line; still limited.
4) (12+) adept at reasoning hypothetically and thinking abstractly
43
assimilation
adding new people events and objects to preexisting schemes of thought
44
accomodation
changing scheme of thought as a result of new stimulus
45
Kennard principle
the variability of neural plasticity over developmental time concerns the recovery fo neurological function after brain injury; the generalization that recovery is better the early in development the injury occurs
46
blastocyst
a stage of embryonic development intermediate b/t zygote and the embryo; differentiates into 3 layers that make up the gastrula
47
gastrula
has 3 germ layer: the endodoerm, mesoderm, and ectoderm; the brain and the rest of the nervous system derive from the ectoderm component
48
neurulation
around the 20th day of embryogenesis, neurulation occurs: the midline of the ecotderm develops into the neural plate, which then folds inwoard on itself within 3-4 weeks postgestation to form the neural tube
49
neural precursor cells
the cells of the neural tube
50
neuroblasts
middle stage between neural precurser cells and the neurons/neuroglia that they eventually become
51
ventricular zone
locus of cell division, the inner surface of the neural tube; precursor cells migrate outward from here before they differentiate into neurons
52
myelination
increases the speed of action potential condution and thus improves the efficieny of neuronal signalling and processing in general; begins late in gestation (29 weeks) and not really finished until adolescence
53
neuroanatomy milestones after first year
80% of adult weight by agge 2;
90% by age 5;
brain size peaks at late teenage and declines thereafter;
volume peaks at 11.5 and 14.5 for women and men, respectively
primary regions to develop are primary functions: motor and sense, followed by temporal and parietal cortices associated w/ language and spatial attention
last brain regions to develop are prefrontal and lateral temporal cortices invovled in sensorimotor integration, modulatonj of attention/language, and critical aspects of deciding
54
brain size phylogenetic patterns
as brain size increases, the complexity of computations that the brain can perform usually increases; relationship is not absolute (ex. human ancestor w/ chimp size brains but sophisticated tools)
mammals and birds have generally larger brains (and certainly larger cerebral cortices) than reptiles, fish, amphibians
55
allometry
differential measurements of individual body parts in relation to the whole
allometric relationship of brain and body size highly variable among species;
many animals ahve larger brains than expected for their average body size and others don't; explained as an adaptational decision
56
residual brain size
deviations from allometrically predicting brain size;
57
neocortex phylogeny patterns
as the brain gets larger the neocortex tends to get larger;
allometric relationship relating neocortex size to brain size has the same slope, but different intercepts in different species
human pattern is explained as fast evolution of genes leading to humans - particular microcephalin-1 (MCPH1)
58
gyrification index
a quantitative measure of the degree of neocortical folding
s
scales positively w/ the size of the neocortex; primates w/ neocortices larger than predicted also shown even greater degrees of neocortical folding
59
neurocomplexity phylogeny patterns
pattern that as brain-to-body-weight ratios increased over time, so did # of neuronal cell types;
60
microcephalin-1
gene implicated as important to the growth and differentiation of neurons; mutations lead to sever reductions in head and brain size
61
principle of proper mass
states that the mass of neural tissue controlling a particular function will be proportional and appropriate to the amount of information processing involved in performing the function in question
62
mosaic brain evolution
the proposal that different functional parts of the brain, or modules, evolve at different rates in response to different selective pressures in the environment
evinced by selective overrepresentation of cortices relative to other cortices in brains across species
63
foraging hypothesis
suggested by work of Timothy Clutton-Brock and Paul Harvey at Oxford; showed that allometric relationship between brain and body size differs in primates that forage for different types of food
high diet in ripe fruit = larger brains for their body size than diet of mostly leaves or insects
idea is that more learning and memory is required to locate temporal and spatial distribute of resources across a wide area
64
machiavellan hypothesis
idea the thte demands of navigating a complex social group favored the evolution of cerebral and cognitive enhancement in primates
managing social groups relies on individual recognition, status assessment, and long-term memory for prior interactions, as well asa ability to infer the intetions of other individuals from their expressions and state of attention
65
hominids
first distinguishing species from apes; special in that it had upright bipedal walking
66
australopithecines
eastern/souther African fossil beds dated to 3-4 million years ago;
brain size of modern chimp; came after hominids
67
homo habilis
"handy man"; 2.5 million years ago; 50% larger brain than ancesors; first human ancestor to produce crude stone tools
68
homo erectus
diverged from earlier homo species 800,000 years ago; advancements in brain size in cognition; 1/3 bigger than early homo habilis; made stone tools of greater complexity and symmetry
persisted for about 2 million years and colonizing Africa and Eurasia; Homo erectus evolved further and tools progressed in sophitication
69
Neanderthals
200,000 to 50,000 years ago in Western Europe and Middle East; bigger brains than us but also slightly heavier bodies;
70
Homo sapiens
rose about 200,000 years ago, rapidly spread through world and drove out other hominid populations including Neanderthals to extinction
71
spindle cells
specialized neurons within the anterior cingulate cortex and insula thought to help support advanced social cognition;
with enhancement in corticopsinal projections and size of neocortex (+ its projections), defined the superiority of the priimate brain
72
rhesus monkeys and language
shown to ahve at least five food-related volcations including warble, harmonic arch, chirp, coo, grunt, and threat call
73
recursive grammar
the ability to embed clauses meaningfully into sentences and to iterate these additions ad infinitum (in principle) in a manner that still makes sense
74
context-free grammar
not a finite state grammar, the pattern does not determine the significance of the stimulus; a form X knows Y for exmaple will work for any terms X and Y
75
finite-state grammar
in the phrasing X knows Y, the statement will not work for any specific terms X and Y; the pattern determines the significance of the stimulus. Each symbol encodes only one meaning.
76
universal grammar
the idea that all languages must share some basic rules, or a deep structure which are transformed into surface structures of particular languags
77
connectionist langauge theories
the general idea of associational linkages as a model for the lexical aspects of langauge; fails to give insight into key aspects of language like grammar and synthax but explains associational character of speech and has a strong foundation in statistical assocation
78
vocabulary
the set of meanings of a signifcant number of words
79
infants and phonology
infants can iinitially perceive and discriminate among all possible speech sounds that humans have and are not innately biased toward any particular phonemes;
fact that Native Japanese speakers cannot reliably tell the difference between the /r/ and /l sounds in English is evidence that this ability doesn't persist
80
baby talk
form of speech that adults instinctively use when speaking to very young children which emphasizes the phonetic distinctions in a language to a greater degree than nomrla speech, presumably helping the infant hear the phonetic characteristics of the langauge it's learning
81
perceptual magnet
tenendecy to group speech sounds based on core phonemic preferences in different languages; occurs in infants as early as 6 months
82
Genie
girl who suffered from language deprivation until age 13 due to deranged parents; event after being saved she could never learn more than rudimentary langauge skills
83
graphemes
symbols that represent words, syllables and phonemes; an example is the Chinese logogram
84
phones
basic speech sounds timuli in any langauge
85
phoneme
the perceptions that a speech sound elicits
86
vowel sounds
most of the voice elements of speech and involve oscillations of the vocal cords; have a tonal quality since oscillations are periodic, eliciting the perception of pitch
87
consonant sounds
invovles obstruction of oscillations in some way to create new sound; briefer and involve more rapid changes in sound energy over time, and are acoustically more complex
categorized according to site in vocal tract taht determines them or manner of articulation.
88
contiuinty effect
filling in effect; implies that speech percepts are actively created by the human auditory and language processing systems; not simple neural translations or representations of physical stimuli at the ear
89
coarticulation
phenomonen of vocal tract changes during speech overlapping in time and influencing one another
90
grammar
the system of rules by which words are propoerly formed and combined
91
synthax
themore general set of rules describing the combinations of grammatically correct wordse and phases that can, in turnb, be used to make meaningful sentences
92
homonyms
words represented by teh same spelling and sound stimulus but w multiple meanings
93
McGurk effect
demonstration that speech sounds are strongly influenced by what we see
94
resonance
a plucked string vibrates at a particualar frequency depdning on length, tension, density and variety of other factors; they have a set of frequencies or vibratory modes; a model of speech sound
95
fundamental frequency
the greatest vibration corresponds to the full length of a string and its vibratory mode is called this
96
harmonic
virbratory modes following from fundamental frequency at the pattern of 1/x of the length of the string, depending on distance from fundamental frequency
97
vocal cords
analogous to virbarty strings, responsible for vocalization with the vocal tract
98
vocal tract
analogous to the filtering effects of the attached body of a stringed instrument like a guitar or violin; along with vocal cords responsible for vocalization
99
laryx
also called glottis. Place of the vocal cords; expels from lungs air during voclalization.
100
source-filter model
a generally accepted model for the production of speech sound stimuli that entails the vocal-fold vibrations as as source and the rest of the vocal tract as a dynamic filter
101
formants
peaks of power taht are produced by the source-filter mechanism; produced by natural resonacnes of the vocal tract that filter the sound pressure oscillations produced by the larynx
102
self-reflexive thought
the ability to consider one's own being as an object, and thus subject to consideration in objective terms
103
fugue states
transient states of confusion in which self-relevant knowledge is temporarily unavailable to consciousness and uncharacteristic and often self-destructive behaviors ensue
104
self-reflection
an initial redirection of attentional focus from sensory events to internal thoughts, memories, feelings and visceral sensations
105
default mode
brain areas activate in absense of explicit stimulation from or attention to the extrapersonal environment; the activity of these regions decrease during tasks that require attention to stimuli in extrapersonal space
occurs in the dorsal and ventromedial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate, and medial and lateral parietal cortex; correlated w/ EEG power in teh beta band
106
self-reflection brain areas
medial PFC and parietal regions;
degree of activity in the medial PFC in response to teh words predicts which ones are remembered later; implicates specific neural signature fo self-referential memory encoding
Brodmann area 10 is recruited more strongly for judgments focused on oneself rather than others and thus medial PFC ius implicated strongly in autobiographical memories;
107
brain areas concerning subjective feelings and tehs sorts of visercal cahnges that accompany emotional or painful stimuli
brain regions invovled in self-reflexive thought (medial PFC and parietal regions, especially Broddman 10) but also the orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and insula
more activity on rostral anterior cingulate when focusing on subjective arousal response to emotionally aversinve scenes rather than focus on spatial layout of the scenes
individual duifferens in performance on Lane's Levels of Emotional Awareness scale (measuring how deeply and complexly emotions are beiing experience) aslo modulate anterior cingualte responses; anterior cingulate activty scales w/ autonomic measure of arousal and the subjective experience of the unpleasantness of pain, and is implicated in the regulation of pain modulation
reinforces idea of anterior cingulate as integrator of attentional and emotional functions, but w/ specifi goal of directing attention to one's own emotional reactions
108
insula
anterior part signals awareness of bodily sensations (interoception), such as alterations in respiration and heart rate during arousal
posteror and mid part are part of visceral processing network that includes brainstem autonomic centers, hypothalamus and the anterior cingulate
projects to orbitofrontal cortex, and receives connections particularly from right hemisphere
neocortical components of this hierarchy thought to represent bodily state in an integrated way
109
embidoment
the sense of being localized within the body ; includes self-location (feeling of being at a particular locaiton in sapce) and egocentric frame of reference (navigating the wordlw/ references to the location of oneself and one's own viewpoint)
individuals w/ right parietal damange may ignore or deny existence of left side of their body (neglect syndrom)
can experience sensations from amputated body part (phantom limb syndrome)
agnosognosia - deny that their body is suffering from a particular ailment
exsperience feeling of disembodiment
implciatd in extrastraite body area (part of extrastriate visual area), engaged when inviduals visually process human bodies of body parts, imagine changes in position of body part, or adopt a third-person perspective for visualizing their own body
110
temporoparietal junction
a multisensory area at border between the temporal and parietal lobes and surrounding the posterir terminus of the Sylvian fissure; linked to out-of-body experiencesx
111
fusiform face area
fusiform gyrus; to some degree specialized for encoding info about faces
has a pathway for person recognition and for dynamica facial features
112
person recognition
processing invariant facial featurs and linking face representations w/ semantic knowledge about individuals and their names
pathyway for it connects fusiform gyrus w/ lateral temporal neocortex, the temporal pole, and the hippocampus, where biographical information is access and names rertrieved
must iteract w/ dynamical facial features pathway
113
dynamical facial features pathway
for emotional expression, mouth movements, and gaze direction
includes fusiform gyrus, superior temporal sulcus, amygdala, and other limbic forebrain structures
interacts with person recognition pathway of fusiform face area
114
prosopagnosia
condition involving damage to ventral regions of temporal lobe; have difficulty recognizing individuals according to their facial features, but often evaluate facial expressions correctly;
alternatively, those w. damage to amuygdala or superior temporal sulcus have difficulty evaluating emotional expression or eye gaze direction, but can recognize and name individuals normally
115
biological motion lcosu
processed in the primary visual and extratriate cortices to the temporal lobe in the ventral "what" pathway for visual information processing; info about location and motion relayed primarily to the parietal lobe in the more dorsal "where" pathway
super temproral sulclus preferentially signals body actions that are meaningful and goal-directed and human/robotic motion as opposed to, say, pendulum swing
116
empathy model
four primary components
1) emotion sharing between indivudlas is based on automatic perception action coupling and shared somatic0emtoinal representations that rely on processing in the somatosensory cortex and limib forebrain regions
Not sure if mirror neurons invovled; insula for disgust observation/experience.
2) self0awanress and the distinction b/t self and other involve processing in parietal lobes, prefrontal cortex, and insula.
3) mental flexibility: ability to adopt perspective of another individual, recruiting medial and dorsolateral prfrontal regions
4) emotion regulation - operates on the emotional and somatic states generated by engaging executive control mechanisms in the anterior cingulate and lateral/ventromedial PFC
117
sympathy
feelings of pity or cocnern for another individual's plight
118
empathy
capacitiy to comprehend and resonate w/ another's emotional experience
119
metarepresention
ability to abstract the elemnts of a social situation
120
location change tasks
like Piaget's Maxi task
121
unexpected contents task
object placed i n a container; unbeknownst to third party; object is replaced by another; participant must then indciate which object third party thinks is in the container
122
perspective taking
ability to flexibly adopt the persictive of another individual and distinguish that viewpoint from one's own
123
mirror neurons
present in the premotor cortex of the macaque monkey which increase their actiity not only whena agrasphing action is selected and performed, but also when that or a related action is passively viewed whilbe ing performed by other animals
found in humans in a region of rostral inferior parietal cortex that projects to premotor area F5, implicating a frontoparietal mirroe network
medial temporal info about biological movement is transmitted to the parietal component of this system and something inhibits the parietal system form enacting the motion
role in social cognition is speculative
124
social refernecing
the ability of a preson to interpt the body gestures and facil and vocal expressions of others to determine how to deal w/ an ambiguous or novel situation (visual cliff)
125
shared attention
allocation of processing resources toward an object or region of space cued by another individual
a posner variant uses positon of the eyes in a face stimulus as a salient cue about wehre a fase is looking; task is to respond to a subseuqnt target that appears either in teh cued location or in the opposite hemifield;
reaction time used to quantify whether gaze shift was attentded by participant or not
valid cues improve performance and elicit larger-amplitude ERP components, implying attentional modulation of visual procewssing in extrastriate regions of cortex
invalid cues have slow reaction times, later enchancement of P300, suggesting need to update working emory processes due to unexpected result
126
trustworthiness
worthiness of trust that must be asssessed by individuals; patients w/ damage to orbitofrontal cortex can't assess trustwrothness well and so are susceptible to deceptive financial scams
more activtiyt in amygdla and insula when patients don't trust
more activity in orbitofrontal cortex for who patients do trust
eye gaze shifts also affect appraisals
explicit judgments of trusthworthness recruit more procesisng in the superior temporal csulcus
127
social cateogyr information
processed rapidly and automatically when we encounter new poeople, even when that information isn't critical
more amygdala activity w/ respect to unfamilar African American faces through the IAT and startle eye-blink resposnes (indicative of negatively valenced evaluations)
african americans ahve implicit bias, too, but habituiation is faster
enahnced fusiform activity for people in own race prob due to familiarity w/ in-group members or greater individuation
fa
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two stage model of group stereotypes
1) that anterior cignulate activity relfects continual monitoring fo conflict during info processing
2) prefrontal regions are subsequently recruited once a need for conflict resolution is detected
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error-related negativity
a component of ERPs sensitive to info-processing conflicts that lead to response errors, and is locaized to anterior cingulate gyrus and offers potential neural index of ongoing conflict mointoring
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rapid classifcation task
priming of objects by African American fac es facilitates detection of weapons and impair detection of tools, and no effect for Causasions
errors suggest stroop-like response
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james-lange feedback theory
An eliciting stimulus 1) directly causes a bodily reaction, which 2) feeds back into the brain 3) to generate an emotional feeling 4). According to this theory no specialized brain region for emotion exists, and bodily reactions and feelings have a one-to-one functional correspondence.
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cannon-bard theory
input from the emotion-provoking stimuli 1) is directed in parallel from the thalamus in the diencephalon to the cortex directly (2b) or through the thalamus( (2a, 3b) for the generation of feelings (4), and from the thalamus to the hypothalamus (2a) for bodily expression (3a)
based on criticism that the reationcs of the autnomic nervous system were too undifferentiated to yield the variety of emotional states that we experience, and that neurohormonal feedaack from teh body's endocrine organis to the brain take too long to account for the abrupt onset of emotions
argued that the autonomic nervous system coordinate's teh body's fight or flight response;
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sham rage
phenomenon that electrical stimulation fhte hypothalamus could elicit emotional reactions in a cat, specifically hissing, growling and attack behaviors directed randomly toward innocuous targets
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Papex circuit for emotional processing
extended Cannon-Bard by proposing that the cingulate gyrus mediated emotional feelings;
stream of thought (cortical route) - carrying from the thalamus to the sensory neocortex (activated by memories) to the cingulate gyrus;
straeam of feeling (subcoritcal route) - carried sensory info to the mamillary bodies of teh hypothalamus, which proejcts to the cingulate gyrus via the anterior thamalus
close the loop - nerons in cingulate gyrus proejct back down to the hypothalamus by way of the hippocampus through the fornix to the hypothalamus again
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Kluver-Bucy syndrome
hallmark of this is the inability to evaluate the emotional and omtivational significance of objects in the environment, particularly by sense of sight
involved loss of fear, visual agnosia, hyperorality, altered food preferences, hypersexuality, and increased exploratory effect
involves removal of temporal lobes in a rhesus moneky, helping Papex circuit idea because of implication of hippocampus; however instead provided backdrop for limbic theory of emotion
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limbic system theory
theory of emotion involving the limbic system
centered was the hippocampus, which was the seat of emotional feelings and integrator of emotional reactions
included triune brain w/ core reptilian component (brainstem), a paleomammalian component (limbic system) and a neomamallian component (neocortex)
considred to distinguish and link brain regions ocncerned w the external environment (sensory systems), leading to visceromotor responses to stimuli. The functions of the system link together Papez's stream fo thought and of feeling.
quite vague and disorganized theory, but very impactful because of the brain regions whose emotional functions have stood the test of time
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limbic system
system organized for the limbic system theory involving all strucutres of the Papez circuit (thalamus, hypothalamus, cingulate gyrus, and hippocampus) as well as Broca's limbic lobe (including pyriform, rhinal, subcallosal and paraspenial cortices) and subcortical nuclei including the septum and portions of the basal ganglia - as well as the amygdala dna orbitofrontal cortex
more organized conceptualization divides limbic system between dorsal cognitive (cogntiive and executive functions) built and ventral emotional belt (involved in emotioanl and olfactory functions)
Cognitive belt: parahippocampal gyrus, mammilary body, anterior nucleus of thalamus, and hippocampus
emotional ventral belt: orbital and medial PFC< amygdala, ventral basal ganglia, hypothalamus,
uhhh
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right-hemisphere hypothesis
theory that the right hemispshere is specialized for processing many aspects fo emotion
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prosody
the inflections, rhythm and stress in vocal sounds; suggested to be emphasized in the right hemisphere;
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valence hypothesis
theory that the left and right hemispheres are specialized for positive and negative emotions, respectively,
a more hybridized version has right posterior sensory regions dominant for evaluations of all emotions, but the experience and e3xpression of emotions is assymetrical
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anhedonia
symptom of depression related to reduction of the leftward prefrontal assymetry. Since the asymmetry does not remit w/ treatment, may be trait marker of depression.
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temperament
individual's general predisposition to experience events as pleasant or unpleasant
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categorical theories
regard each emotion as a discrete entity and typically distinguish a small set of bsaic emotions froma larger pool of complex ones (learned, socially and culturally shaped)
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dimensional theories
consider each emotion a point on a continuum that varies along two or more fundamental axes (usually arousal and valence)
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vector models
ordering emotions along axes of positive and negative falene, that are oriented at 90 degrees and meet at a common neutral end point, forming a boomerang shape
usually arousal is important, but concepts of apprach and avoidance can be used as the axes instead
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circumplex models
ordering emotions around the circumference of a circum at the itnersection of two orthogonal axes of arousal and valence
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component process theories
emphasize role of cognitive appraisl in evaulating the emotional meaning of events; suggests that emotions are orgnaized in the brain according to their overlap in recruiting specific appraisal mechanisms
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dyslexia
reading problem neurological disorder; runs in families a lot
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the language gene
FOXP2
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Broca's aphasia
caused by damage tot eh ventral posterior region of the frontal lobe; cannot express thoughts appropriately because the rules of grammar and synthax have ben disrupted by the lesion in the frontal lobe
even though they produce nonsense symmalbes, transpose words, and generally utter structurally incoherent utteracnes, there's some sensible meaning
production aphasia, or motor aphasia
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Wernicke's aphasia
sensory, or receptive aphasia, left side posterior and superior temporal lobe damge,
fluent speech, little spontaeous repittion, adequate syntax, adequate grammar, contrived or innapropriate words, comprehension not intact
words make no sense since cannot correclty link words and meanings
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conduction aphasia
arise from lesions to pathways connecting relevant temporal and frontal regions, and can lead to inability to produce approporiate responses to heard communication, even though communication is understood by speaker
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split brain research and language
showed laterization of language dominance, but right hemispheric activity seems to allow spelling out and interpretation of nonorthogonal stimui,
right brain does emotional coloring, left does lexical and synthatic language
right does spatial, left does writing and speech, etc.
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stereognosis
haptic perception
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Penfield's islations
perisylvian frontal, temporal, and parietal cortices implicated
huge variabllity in language localization from patient to patient; bilingual patients might store other langauge in totally differnt part of brain
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aprosidia
deficiencies of prosody usually assocaited w/ right hemisphere damage; robotic speech
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context in neural processing of langauge
N400 response to a word read silently enhanced if the word is semantically inappropriate
idea is that N400 reflects stumbling over and reprocessing of information that doesn't make sense in comarpison to semantic flow that is usually experienced;
words used frequenly elicit smaller N400 waves than uncommon waves;
homonym activation is lower in sentences that clarify meanings than in those that don't
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somatic marker hypothesis
scheme by which bioregulatory processes, including those related to emtion influence reasoning on complex circumstances
somatic markers are internal represenations of bodily states that indicate the personal consequences of actions associated w/ particular situations; the history of one's emotional responses to action outcomes triggered by similar situations is represented by somatic states; these are stored as long-term dispositions or biases
the VMPFC is instrumental in learning and retaining these associations b/t environmental events and the somatic states based on prior experience
when contemplating actions, VMPFC reactivates relevant somatic states and biases behavior to determine whether contemplated action will be beneficial or detrimental
somatic states can be reactivated either consciously or unconsciously via a body loop or an as-if loop
body loo- VMPFC engages corticolimbic structures taht induce actual motoric and visceral changes, that are fed back to the somatosensory and insular cortices
as-if loop in which VMPFC influences somatosensory cortices while bypassing the body proper;
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atnicipatory emotions
occur prior to decision and can help guide decision mkaing by influencing risk and reward valuation
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expected emotions
result from outcomes of decisions, leading to future expectations of feelings based on responses to similar outcomees
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immediate emotions
influence diecion making simply becauase they occur at same time decision is being made
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contextual fear conditioning
hippocampus is likely site for mediation;
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fear extinction
through repreated presentaion of teh CS w/o the US (foot shock), the animal learns that the CS has cahnged, causign fear extinction
depends on integrity of The VMPFC. Rats w damage to it take much longer to extinguish a conditioned fear response than do controls.
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fight or flight response
piloerection, pupillary dilation, increased blood pressure, ncreased heart and breathing rate
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fear conditionin
amygdala occurs fear conditioning through mediation through the direct amygdala that signals LTP within 15 milliseconds of CS onset in some cells
w/ bilateral amygdala damange, diminished conditoned fear repsonses, including fear-potentiated startle and skin conductance respones; these persist even when the patient is able to state the predictive properties of the CS
also invovled:
anterior cingulate cortex, for example, not implicated w/ fear learning so much as it does attention that are creuited at various points during fear trainingh.
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spreading activation theory
each mood is assocaited w/ particular nodes in the brain that represent basic emotion categories; expereinces or stimuli that share the emotions affiliated w/ the mood become linked to these nodes; when a given mood is experienced, the emotion nodes associated w/ it become activated and this spreads automatically to related memories and concepts according to the strength of their assocation
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flashbulb memory
all the vivid details of an emotionally fraught episode that are registered graphically in the mind's ee
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memory modulation hypoethesis
emphasizes role of amygdala in enhancing consoliation processes in other regions of the brain after an emotional episode has occurred.
includes regions in the medial temporal lobe and the dorsoalater and ventrolaterl PFC;
arousal dimension is the primary force behind the neuromodulatory effects of the amygdala; releases hormones and projects directly to relevant brain areas
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epinephinr, norepinephrine, cortisol
stress hormones secreted from teh adrenal gland; cortisol crosses blood-brain barrier and the other two activate visceral sensory endings in the periphery
effects are maximal during a period of memory consolidation, suggesting an explantion for why moderate stress is beneficial for the encoding of new memories;
generally enhances emotional memory, but also generalized to nonemotional memory as wel.
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propanolol
adrenergic-blocker that when adminstered prior to an narrative w/ emotional content, reduces memory detail memory compared to those receiving a placebo
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amygdala
connected also to the prefrontal cortex intefaces (including anterio cingulate, ventromedial PFC< ventrolateral PFC< and orbitofrontal cortex) for atention;
connected to medial temporal and ventgral frontal lobe for emotional enhancement of memory
amygdala receives input from late stages along ventral srtam, but feeds back to multiple stages of it, including VI; provides a mean s for emotional states to access and tune perceptual representations
a center that shuttles information back and forth from subcorticaland cortical pathways to initiate and coordiante emotional reactions, incluidng output to the hypothalamus and brainstem autonomic control centers that modulate the visceral changes accompanying various emotional states
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emotional oddball task
participants detect attentional targets that appear rarely among a stream of rfequent stimuli;
parciipatns distracted by pictures either emotioanlly arousing or neutral;
shows attentional reasons (dorsal stream) is suppressed when emotional stimuli unexpectedly appear, and emotional regions are supprssed when task-relevant attentional targets are processed
dovetail w/ evidence showing reciprocal engagement of dorsal and ventral sectors of PFC for attentional and emotional functions, respectively
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working memory maintenance function
short-term memory
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refreshing
reactivation by simlpy thinking about a piece of info
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rehearsal
a more laborous iterative process for reactivation
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working memory load
number of items held in working memory at a time
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manipulations
opertions that organize, associate, and transofmr the representations held in working memory
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Baddeley model
memory buffers and a control system. phologoicalloop. visuospatial sketchpad (with a cache and a inner stribe). episodic buffer (integrated, multimodal representatiosn)
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Cowan model
first level of working memory constsis of long term memory rerpesentations in an activated state; working memory represenations for diff types of info are all head in the same store rather than difference ones.
Second level consists of activated rerpesenatiosn taht fall within tehf ocus of attention. Attention can hold 4 items at a time. So the limit is in the focus of attention, not the # of activated represenations.
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phases of working memory
1) encoding phase: one or more items incorporated
2) delay phase: incoded information is maintained in wokring memory for several seconds
response phase: action executed on basis of maintained information
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delay activity neurostuff
delay activity in the brain persists foe entire length of delay for whole length of del;ayed resposne or match to sample tasks; increases as a function of working memory load; attributed to active maintainenance of info within working memory
regions: dorsolateral prefrontal cortex,
more activity for correct than incorrect trials
difficult to ensure that it reflecs only maintenance rather than encoding or response related processes or even a specific action within the acitiy
retrospective code (representatiosn concerning what's come in) vs prospective code (action to be made during the response phase)
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phonological similarity effect
the fact that working memory for letters is worse when the letters sound similar. Suggests store that maintains rerpesentations in a phonologiacal format
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word length effect
fact that people can hold more words in working memory when the words are short, than when they are long. Assuem that there is indeed an articualtory rehearsal rpocess and that complex words slow it down (eh)
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phological store neuro
linked to left inferior parietal cortex and the posteriro part of the left inferior frotnal gyrus (broca's area) for articuartory rehearsal
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articulatory rehearsal process
posterior part of teh left inferior frontal gyrus (broca's area)
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graphemic memory
left inferior temporal cortex
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confirmations of theories
rehearsal and storage components of working memory dependon differnet brain regions, confirming baddely's in some way
baddeley does not postualte a specizlied semantic buffer, but it can be easily be adapted to the theory to accoutn for semantic working memory findings
the association of semantic memory w/ left lateral temporal cortex - a region assumed to deal with long-term semantic knowledge - fits cowan's model
baddeley's provides a better account of dissociations b/t rehearsla and storage components, and Cowan's model is a better account o delay-period activity in posterior regions associated w/ long-term memory storage
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semantic memory
anterior left inferior frontal gyrus is assocaited w/ semantic processing and retrieval and so is likely to mediate rehearsal
left lateral temporal cortex is likely to be involved in storage rather than rehearsal
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spatial working memory
invovles dorsolateral regions and frontal eye fields; posterially, involves the intraparietal sulucs
The frontal eye fields maintain oculomotor coordiantes; the intraparietal sulcus maintains spatial locations.
frontal eye for rehearsal and intraparietal for storage by Baddeley's mdoel
In terms of Cowan's both frontal eye fields and intrapariel could be holding long-term rperesenations which are activated during working memory
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object working memory
superior temporal sulclus to mediate retention of color information during delay period; category specific;
ex. medial fusiform gyrus has greater delay period activity viewing houses rather than lateral fusiform gyrus shows opposite effect
the control of object mainteneance involves the right inferior frontal regions
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working memory in other modalities tend to invovle unimodal sensory regions examples
auditory cortex for auditory working memory and sematosensory cortex for somatic sensory wokring memory
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content-based model
ventrlateral regions of the prefrontal cortex are primarily involved in object working memory, weheras dorsolateral regions are more invovled in spatial working memory
consistent w/ evidence that the ventral pathway for o ject processing projects mainly to ventrolateral prefrontal regions, whereas the dorsal path projects to dorsolateral PFC regions
evidence that DLPFC can hurt object working memory and vice versa hurts this idea
in general dorsolateral are assumed to mediate general control over working memory operations for all modalities
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process-based model
ventrolateral PFC regions are primarily invovled in simple maintaencance operations, whereas dorsolateral regions are involved in processing involving monitoring and manipulatoing info within working memory
supported by evidence of more adctivity in the DLPFC when alphabetizing a sequence rather than when maintaing an ordered sequence of letters.
in general dorsolateral are assumed to mediate general control over working memory operations for all modalities
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priming
the alteration of performacne as a result of preceding experience
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direct priming
where the prime and the target stimulus are the same (envelope and envelope)
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indirect priming
where teh stimuli are different (eg envelope and letter)
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perceptual priming
the test cue and the target cue are perceptually related
connected w/ reptietion suppression in the occipiotemporal and prefrontal regions
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conceptuall priming
where the test cue and the target are assocaitely or semantically related
more dependint on frontal parietal and temporal cortices
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semantic priming
occurs when the prime and target are seamntically related
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diff b/t semantic and conceptual priming
In conceptual priming, the prime and target are teh same and it is the test cue, not the prime that is sematnically related to the target. (There is no test cue in semantic priming because it's indirect).
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delay conditioning
the CS is still present when the US starts and both terminate at the same time (delays departure of CS until when US leaves)
dependent priamrily on cerebellum - especially the interpsitus nucelus and the cerebellar cortex
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trace conditioning
a brief time interval exists bt the end of the CS and teh start of the US (cs must leave some trace in memory for the connection to happen)
dependent on hippocampal integrity, which is strange but defined by awareness of conditioning
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repetition suppression
where previously encountered (primed) stimuli result in smaller hemodynapic respones in frontal and posterior brain regions than novel stimuli;
suggests that it facilitates several stages of stimulus processing by enhancing cognitive operatiosn noramlly required by a task rather than by recruiting additional processes
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masked priming
where conscious awareness is prevented by an interfering mask or noise
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spreading activation
activation spread thourhg network according to stregnth of associations b/t neurons encoding concepts
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modification theory
priming reflects an alteration in prexisting memory represenations
when a word is encountered, the corresponding node in the semantic network is activated. This would acocount for enhanced processing of teh world when encountere again.
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acquisition theory
priming entails the creation of new representations
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fatigue model
whena stimulus is repeated, all of the initially resposnive neurons show a proportionally equivalent reduciton in their repsonses. So the mean response of the population is reduced, but a distribution of responeds across neurons is not affected. But doesn't account for priming effects like increased speed and accuracy.
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sharpening model
when stimulus is repeated, neurons carrying critical info about the stimulus continue to fire vigorously, whereas neurons that are not essential for processing the stimulus respond elss and less, leading to reduced hemodynamic response
only assumes reduciton in noncritical neurons. Lateral inhibition seems to involve this.
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facilitation model
priming via repeition suppression reflects faster procesing of stimuli due to shrter latencies and/or shorter duration of neural firing. When integrated over several sectionds, could result in reduced hemodhynamic resposnes.
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motor skill learning
caudate, putamen during implicit learning
| disrupted by basal ganglia damage
