Sparta Flashcards
There is no way in which its far-flung inhabitants could meet to share its government, nor could their communities stand on their own.
Fitzhardinge
If Sparta was deserted and only its temples and its ground plan left, future generations would never believe that its power had matched its reputation… without any urban unity, made up as it is of distinct villages in the old style, its effect would be trivial.
Thucydides
Sparta and Laconia had many fine temples and monuments.
Pausanias
Spartan society is poorly understood because of the incomplete and biased nature of our written sources and the ambiguity of much of the archaeological material that has survived.
Brennan
A decline in artistic pursuits set in by the end of the 6th century as a result of the need to devote more attention to the military efficiency of the state (including controlling the helots and perioikoi).
Fine and Murray
Local marble not good quality for sculpting so Artists preferred materials such as bronze…
Fitzhardinge
The bronze Statue of Zeus was made from hammering thin sheets of bronze over a mould.
Pausanias
In regards to art, the Spartans were Never just imitators, strong character of its own
Fitzhardinge
There are no real memorable buildings in Sparta: …the city contains no temples or monuments of great significance…
Thucydides
The Statue of Apollo at Amyklae was ancient and without artistry.
Pausanias
The Spartans had so much respect for the cult of Apollo that they spent on it even the gold which Croesus the Lydian sent for Apollo at Delphi.
Pausanias
Spartans were taught as much reading and writing as necessary; some women were also certainly literate.
Plutarch
Alcman lived at the end of the 7th century - about 610 B.C.
Fitzhardinge
The well-knit steed of ringing hoof that overcometh the race.
With how melting a glance does she look towards me, more tender than sleep and death…
Alcman, Maiden Songs
Tyrtaeuss was a foreigner given given Spartan citizenship.
Plato
…well have learnt the disposition of woeful war.
This is a common good for the city and its people, when a man stands in the front line unyielding, putting shameful flight out of his mind…and standing by the next man encourages him with his words.
Tyrtaeus, Eunomia
The spear points of young men blossom there…
And justice is done in open air…
Terpander
Thucydides believed Spartans were not to be trusted but he may have favoured oligarchy (their form of government) over democracy (Athens form of government).
G.E.M Ste Croix
Thucydides is …value laden, subjective and perhaps the product of Spartan propaganda.
Lawless
None the less I do admire Lycurgus, the man who established the laws under which they flourished; I consider him a remarkably wise man. Not merely did he imitate other states, but he adopted opposite institutions to the majority with outstanding results .
Xenophon
Of the lawgiver Lycurgus absolutely nothing can be said that is not controversial, either about his birth, his travels or his death.
Plutarch
So when Lycurgus did return to a populace in this kind of mood, his immediate intention was to sweep away the existing order and to make a complete change of constitution.
Plutarch
Lycurgus was regarded by some as a god and by some as a member of the Spartan royal family.
Herodotus
Lycurgus was probably a primitive local god with a shrine by the Eurotas.
Fitzhardinge
The very existence of Lycurgus is open to doubt… the balance of probability is on the side of Lycurgus having actually lived.
Michel
In regards to Lycurgus … the Spartans themselves believed that they were according these honours to a mortal and I prefer to agree with them.
Forrest
In regards to Lycurgus The perpetuation of his name was one of the most successful frauds in history.
Andrews
Lycurgus established a council of elders to assist the kings in government and giving Spartan citizens the right to vote in an assembly.
Xenophon and Plutarch
Lycurgus established the duties of the king in relation to the state.
Xenophon and Plutarch
Lycurgus redistributed land so that each citizen had a kleros or allotment of land and a number of serfs (helots) to farm it for them. This enabled the Spartans to concentrate on military training.
Xenophon and Plutarch
Lycurgus organised the army – regiments, equipment, fighting tactics and the setting up of camp and the role of the kings on campaign.
Xenophon and Plutarch
Lycurgus set up common messes () which all Spartan citizens (males) had to attend every night and contribute supplies.
Xenophon and Plutarch
Lycurgus outlawed the use of coinage to deter greed and expelled all useless and superfluous crafts.
Xenophon and Plutarch
Lycurgus supposedly established rules concerning marriage, food, drink, behaviour in public and relationships between men and women
Xenophon and Plutarch
Lycurgus gave attention to the role of women and education of girls.
Xenophon and Plutarch
Lycurgus, if such a person existed, took what he found and partly by accident, partly by design, made a system of it.
Forrest
Many of the features mentioned by Xenophon and Plutarch were already part of the Spartan life before the so-called Lycurgan reforms. In fact, most of the peculiar features of Spartan discipline can be traced back to the primitive customs of the Dorian tribes.
Forrest
The greatest thing that Lycurgus did was define what already existed and lay down a set of rules for the first time in Spartas history.
Forrest
Sparta went through a period of political and social upheaval in the 7th century BC. The kings lost their absolute power to the aristocrats whose council – the gerousia—became dominant.
Brennan
But if the people shall bring forth a twisted proposal, the elders and the kings (founder leaders) are not to approve the motion, but must withdraw from it and are to disband the people for twisting and altering the motion contrary to what is best
Plutarch
The kings were the chief priests of the state and kept oracles from Delphi.
Herodotus
The kings were the war leaders but only one at a time led the army on campaign, the other remained back in Sparta to govern and maintain the order of the helots.
Herodotus
The two kings were the traditional commanders of the army of the Peloponnesian League and at times, such as during the Persian Wars, of all Greek forces.
Herodotus
The Kings had limited judicial powers (in the case of marriage of an unbetrothed heiress, matters dealing with public roads and adoptions of orphans).
Herodotus
The kings were members of the gerousia and could thus initiate laws and policy in keeping with the Spartan Constitution.
Herodotus
The Kings had a voice in foreign affairs debates.
Herodotus
They supervised the maintenance of Spartan roads.
Herodotus
The kings were not exempt from the law – on campaign they had the power to make peace or war, but their decisions had to be ratified by the ekklesia.
Herodotus
The Kings were also supervised by the ephors and swore an oath to the ephors that they would uphold the law.
Xenophon
The kings could be put on trial and deposed (which happened to King Pausanias.
Thucydides
The kings political power appears limited .
Aristotle
The Kings had the advantages of being permanent and the weight of being successful generals.
Jones
The kings were given special meats from sacrifices and double rations in mess. This double portion was not generally for him to eat himself, but for him to honour someone else with.
Xenophon
At public dinners following religious celebrations the kings were served first.
Xenophon
The kings were chief priests of Zeus; at religious sacrifices they made the first and received the skins of animals sacrificed.
Xenophon
Seats of honour were reserved for the kings at all public games.
All had to rise from their seats for the kings except the ephors
Xenophon
They were given a bodyguard of 100 chosen men while on campaign.
Xenophon
On the Gerousia … by making the rule of the elders just like the ballast-weight in a ship there was an equal balance that gave stability and calmness, for the 28 elders always sided with the kings, enough to resist democracy, and on the other hand, always strengthened afresh the people in order to prevent the creation of a tyranny
Plutarch
The Ephors swore an oath each month to uphold the powers of the kings, providing the kings acted lawfully.
Xenophon
Their most notable act in history was the trial and sentencing of King Pausanias for his poor conduct at the end of Persian Wars.
Thucydides
The Ekklesia usually voted YES or NO by acclamation (shouting out) but could also physically divide into Yes and No groups.
Thucydides
By the 5th century BC, there were three distinct social classes in Sparta (plus another group known as inferiors). The reforms attributed to Lycurgus brought about a process of social levelling.
Brennan
The term homoioi is often mistranslated as equals. The word homoioi implies that the citizens had much in common and were alike or similar, not necessarily equal in wealth or social standing. Older aristocratic families retained status and influence in Spartan society. Positions in government were dominated by the first families.
Brennan
Each new born boy and future citizen in ancient Sparta was given by the state, an equal plot or allotment of land, a kleros (plural: kleroi).
Plutarch
Historians now suspect that the kleros is merely part of the myth of equality in Sparta.
Brennan
The kleros is a late invention; Plutarch was trying to re-create a perfect Sparta so wrote this information back into earlier history.
Brennan
There are many instances of inequality in Spartan society. It would seem that some people had more land and there were rich and poor Spartiates.
Xenophon
The kleros, as mentioned by Plutarch, did exist from the 7th century BC and was not divisible. However, extra land might be accumulated. He argues that for the majority of Spartiates c.500, the kleros represented the main component of their assets. This is because they were forbidden to have a trade or a business.
Figueira
The syssition was also designed to replace the family as the primary focus of a Spartiates daily life and to reinforce the exclusive status of the Spartiates in a society where there were other inferior groups such as perioikoi and helots
Brennan
A young man in his early 20s had to be accepted by a mess group of about 15 men and we get the impression that some mess groups were very exclusive and difficult to get into. All mess members had to agree to the admission of a new member. With even one vote against him, the candidate would then have to begin his search again to find another group that would accept him. An inability to gain election into any mess group would mean social exclusion and disgrace. Once elected, daily attendance at the evening meal was obligatory. Only a hunting expedition or pressing religious duties were considered an acceptable excuse for absence.
Brennan
Damatria, after hearing that her son was a coward and unworthy of her, killed him when he returned to Sparta.
Plutarch
An unnamed Spartan woman killed her son, who had deserted, as unworthy of his country, saying Hes not my offspring… Useless pup, worthless portion, away to Hell. Away! This son, unworthy of Sparta, was not mine at all
Plutarch
Another woman when her sons fled from battle and reached her said In making your escape, vile slaves, where is it youve come to?
Plutarch
When another woman heard that her son was behaving badly abroad, she wrote to him Youve acquired a bad reputation. Either shake this off or cease to exist.
Plutarch
The Spartans sent 5000 troops to the Battle of Plataea and with them went 5000 picked Lakedaemonian troops drawn from the outlying towns.
Herodotus
The perioikoi as making shoes, purple garments (from murex) and objects of wood and iron.
Herodotus
We cannot assume all craft objects that date from the 7th or 6th century BC were made by perioikoi though.
Brennan
Perioikoi from two Messenian towns joined the revolt with the helots after the earthquake in the 460s.
Thucydides
Helots had certain advantages over other types of slaves in Greece: they could keep their surplus produce, live with their own families and possessions (passed on through the generations) and probably enjoyed their own cults.
Finley
The Helots were asses exhausted under great loads: under painful necessity to bring their masters full half the fruit their ploughed land produced
Tyrtaeus
The frequency of slave revolts in Messenia was a concern and the Helot system was the most vexed problem in Greece.
Plato
Spartans took extra precautions against the helots – removable arm bands on their shields, special locks and always carrying a spear in case of attack.
Kritias
Helots wore distinctive clothing which was meant to humiliate, degrade and dehumanise them.
Ephraim
Helots wore a kyne, a dogskin cap.
Myron of Priene
They assign to the helots every shameful task leading to disgrace. For they ordained that each one of them must wear a dogskin cap and wrap himself in skins and receive a stipulated number of beatings every years regardless of any wrongdoing, so that they would never forget that they are slaves.
Myron of Priene
Moreover, if any (Helot) exceeded the vigour proper to a slaves condition, they made death the penalty; and they allotted a punishment to those controlling them if they failed to rebuke those who were growing fat. And in giving land over to them they set them a portion which they were constantly to hand over.
Myron of Priene
The large population of helots seems to have been a constant threat and they rebelled on several occasions, often timing their revolts to coincide with other problems faced by Sparta, such as earthquakes or military campaigns.
Thucydides
Specially chosen bands of young men were sent into the countryside to deal with the helots. Kryptaeia
Plutarch
Kryptaeia By day they would disperse to obscure spots in order to hide and rest. At night they made their way to roads and murdered any helot whom their caught. Frequently, too, they made their way through the fields, killing the helots who stood out for their physique and strength
Plutarch
The Spartan education was calculated to make them obey commands well, endure hardships and be victorious in battle.
Plutarch
A baby had to pass an inspection by the ephors at a place called the Lesche.
Plutarch
Agoge members above 12 wore a himation and they were expected to walk in silence with their hands under their cloaks and eyes to the ground.
Xenophon
As a symbol of this, final year eirens were enrolled in teams of (ballplayers) and played a ritual ballgame in the citys theatre as part of a type of graduation ceremony.
Plutarch and Kennell
They fight hand to hand and pouncing upon others, they bite and they gouge eyes, man against man. One group throws itself at the other, overpowering them and they shove another into the water.
Pausanias
The most important function (for women) was child bearing.
Xenophon
Spartan girls were married when they were ripe for it – that is, when they were physically more mature (late teens as opposed to early teens for Athenian girls).
Plutarch
The so-called bridesmaid took charge of the captured girl. She first shaved her head to the scalp, then dressed her in a mans cloak and sandals, and laid her down alone on a mattress in the dark. The bridegroom – who was not drunk and thus not impotent, but was sober as always – first had dinner in the messes, then would slip in, undo her belt, lift her and carry her to bed. After spending only a short time with her, he would depart discreetly so as to sleep wherever he usually did along with the other young men.
A.J. Ball
Lycurgus also laid down a law that a man did not have to marry and could ask permission of another man to have children with that mans wife.
Xenophon
By the end of the classical period, women did own and manage estates without male guardians (up to two-fifths of all land).
Xenophon and Aristotle
Spartan women owned their dowries which were usually land.
Powell and Pomeroy
A king decided to whom an orphaned heiress married .
Herodotus
Spartan men were always subject to their wives and allowed them to interfere in affairs of state more than they themselves did in private ones.
Plutarch
Womens supervising estates included: choosing animals for breeding, approving cultivation patterns, obtaining appropriate seed stock.
Xenophon
Lycurgan law code forbade Spartan women from wearing make-up, jewellery or perfume, or dyeing their clothes.
Plutarch
No Spartan girl could grow up modest, even if she wanted to … they go out With bare thighs and loose clothes, to wrestle and run races along with the young men.I call it intolerable.
Eurypides
On the poetry of Tyrtaeus we almost hear the voice of the drill instructor shouting his orders to the men to get in close and kill.
Brennan
When Greece faced the threat of Persian invasion, Sparta was given leadership of the combined Greek forces .
Herodotus
The Spartan army was finally defeated by a Theban force at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC.
Xenophon
The king, when in battle, was surrounded by an elite force of 300 men.
Thucydides and Xenophon
The Phalanx usually consisted of 8 rows.
Thucydides
The overall tactic was to create a steam-roller effect and force the enemys front rank to stagger backwards and collapse.
Brennan
In the equipment that he devised for the troops in battle he included a red cloak, because he believed this garment to have least resemblance to womens clothing and to be most suitable for war, and a brass shield, because it is very soon polished and tarnishes very slowly. He also permitted men who were past their first youth to wear long hair, believing that it would make them look taller, more dignified and more terrifying.
Xenophon
Lycurgus persuaded the Spartans to pool all the land, divide it into allotments and distribute them amongst the Spartan citizens and perioikoi.
Plutarch
… [Lycurgus], wanting to have as many as he could, encouraged the citizens to have large families… yet it is obvious that, if there were many children, the land being distributed as it is, many of them must necessarily fall into poverty..
Aristotle
We cannot assume that all non-military occupations at Sparta had always, or only, been filled by perioikoi. Despite Lykourgos laws that forbade Spartans from doing craft work, we do not know that these laws were always followed, even in the 5th century BC
Brennan
It is probable that there were Spartan craftsmen up until the 6th century.
Herodotus
…the helots farm for the Spartans.
Aristotle
Lycurgus actively discouraged the Spartans from trading amongst themselves or with other people by forbidding the use of all gold or silver coinage.
Plutarch
Plutarch represents a late ideal which we should not accept as an accurate recording of Spartan economic exchange.
Brennan
As a monetary economy began to develop in the 6th century BC, the iron bars were probably introduced in Sparta at this time and precious metals banned.
Figueira
The introduction of the iron bars was intended to isolate the Spartan economy
Brennan
Mess contributions included a small monthly payment in coin for fish or meat.
Plutarch
Spartans held secret stocks of precious metals in their homes and as late as the 5th century BC.
Figueira
In reality Spartans reached valuations of material goods mainly in terms of silver coins. Over the horizon of conceptualization, conventional monetary behaviour, both offshore and away from public inspection, was enacted analogously to the operation of a modern black economy involving actions shielded from government scrutiny
Figueira
The blood-letting during the whipping at the cheese stealing ritual at Artemis Orthia was a substitute for human sacrifice.
Pausanias
Spartan soldiers on campaign sang a paean, a joyful hymn to Poseidon.
Xenophon
Spartans believed the earthquake of 465 BC was Poseidons punishment for them seizing and killing helots who had sought refuge at the altar of Poseidon.
Thucydides
The Dioscuri were credited with the ability to help those who fell unexpectedly into peril in battle and were associated with athletic contests.
Pindar
The Menelaion was the supposed site of the burial of Menelaos and Helen.
Pausanias
On the Karnea They clearly took religious obligations very seriously.
Brennan
Kings were expected to frequently offer sacrifices for the success of their city, and the safeguard of the army.
Xenophon
Kings were the chief priests of the state and kept oracles from Delphi.
Herodotus
The kings had the privilege of being given special meats from sacrifices. They made the first libations and received the skins of the animals sacrificed.
Xenophon
The kings also appointed the four pithoi or sacred envoys to the Delphic oracle and were responsible for the safekeeping of all prophecies
Herodotus
With the helots taking care of agricultural duties and household duties for women, the Spartans had time on their hands for leisure activities.
Plutarch
Athletics was a favoured leisure activity. Spartans were probably the first to play field sports completely naked and to anoint their bodies with olive oil before exercise.
Brennan
Spartans even practised athletics while on campaign.
Xenophon
Many leisure hours were probably spent training.
Brennan
if a Spartiate had no hunting dogs, he could borrow them from a more prosperous neighbour.
Xenophon
Hunting developed a mans courage and agility and made him a better soldier, developing Spartan character.
Xenophon
The annual hunting of helots in the countryside required the same skill.
Brennan
The Spartans appear to have been horse-mad.
Brennan
There was a regular circuit of annual games in which equestrian competition took place. Children in wealthy families were often named after horses (Hippokrates; Euarkhippos) and given horsey nicknames.
Hodkinson
Strong game birds that were aggressive were symbolic of the maleness that was much valued. Cocks fought to the death.
Plutarch
Boar fighting occurred before the competition between youths at the Plane-trees and the result was taken as an omen for the outcome of their struggle.
Pausanias
Festive meal or which was associated with religious occasions.
Plutarch
The same meat dish is given to all on every occasion, a piece of boiled pork…there is nothing except the broth made from this meat….
Dicaerchus
Clothing was used to show at a glance those who were free citizens, who were enslaved helots, who were young citizens in training and who were disgraced people.
Brennan
On the peplos These quasi-tunics, the skirt of which, not being sewn from the hem, fell open as the wearer walked, revealing her thighs; whence the nickname they were given….thigh-displayers.
Plutarch
Lycurgus forbade dowries, but it seems a father provided his daughter with a dowry of land and animals to help her gain a husband.
Brennan
Husbands slept in barracks until 30 - only visiting wife in stealth; this practice increased fertility and self-control. The reasoning was that infrequent intercourse would lead to more powerful sexual energy to produce a fitter baby.
Xenophon and Plutarch
At marriage the women were carried off by force, not when they were small and unready for marriage, but when they were ripe and in their prime.
Plutarch
We cannot assume that all non-military occupations at Sparta had always, or only, been filled by perioikoi. Despite Lykourgos laws that forbade Spartans from doing craft work, we do not know that these laws were always followed, even in the 5th century BC
Brennan
