South Africa 1948-1994 Flashcards
1
Q
Election Of 1948
A
- Nationalist Party won election; almost entirely unanticipated by all.
- a few reasons for such were:
- the electorate was overwhelmingly white
- NP won many rural seats, in this way the electoral system worked in their favour
- UP leader (Jan Smuts) was 75, out of touch with the youth, in addition the UP were in internal conflict.
- End of WWII caused SA to undergo huge economic change
- NP policies loosely backed by biblical references; idea that it was god’s will.
2
Q
Tomlinson Report
A
- Professor F.R Tomlinson was appointed by DF Malan to create a working apartheid model.
- Tomlinson wrote a report denoting how Apartheid could logistically work, but it would be expensive for the government.
- main ideas conveyed in the report:
- £100 million spent in the first 10 years
- expansion of Bantu areas, and complete, forced migration of all Black SAs to those areas.
- promotion of industrial development in these areas through white, private enterprise, limiting govt. spending.
3
Q
Prohibition Of Mixed Marriages Act
A
- 1949
- made marriages between people of different races illegal.
- people currently in mixed marriages expected to split up
- reduced number of mixed births
- enabled by population registration act, 1950
4
Q
Immorality Act
A
-1950
- made interracial sexual relationships illegal
- less severe punishments for whites
- reduced number of mixed births
5
Q
Population Registration Act
A
-1950
- defined every SAn citizen as one of a specific race
- acted as basis for + allowed for many other Apartheid laws to be enforced
6
Q
Suppression Of Communism Act
A
-1950
- defined communism as any sort of unrest/protest
- allowed police to ban/arrest + label anti-apartheid campaigners as communists
7
Q
Bantu Authorities Act
A
-1951
- forced black South Africans to relocate to/ inhabit their respective territories permanently
- govt. chose the leaders of each area to cooperate
- long commuting distances
8
Q
Group Areas Act
A
-1950
- separated towns/cities into black, white, and coloured
- gave best/nicest areas to whites
- forcibly evicted those in the wrong areas
9
Q
Abolition Of Passes Act
A
- 1952
- made it so that all non-white SAs had to carry passbooks at all times + when commuting to white/alternate areas
- stop and search practices carried out frequently by police.
10
Q
Bantu Education Act
A
-1953
- moved control of Black Education over to Ministry for Native Affairs
- different standards of education, such as being taught ethnic languages to set them up for a limited life after school
- increased literacy and numeracy for black children due to broadening of education
11
Q
Separate Amenities Act
A
-1953
- divided public spaces + services into European and non-European
- resulted in separate parks, benches, trains, etc.
- constant reminder of Black SAs inferior position in society
12
Q
Opposition and Resistance 1948-57
A
- The Defiance Campaign,1952: Organised by ANC, involved using white services; e.g. trains, benches. Resulted in a vast ANC membership rise from 7000 to 100,000.
- Alexandra Bus Boycotts,1957: caused by the increase of bus fares, meaning the blacks in Alexandria boycotted the bus services; achieved its aim, fare increase was removed
- The Freedom Charter,1955: acted as a manifesto for all opposition to Apartheid. Participants incl: 320 Indians, 230 coloureds, 112 whites, 2200 blacks, policies include; fair voting rights/human rights, fair trials, employment, etc.
13
Q
Petty Apartheid VS Grand Apartheid
A
- Petty: enabled the smaller-scale segregation if public services/spaces and social events
- Grand: strictly separated housing and employment opportunities by race
14
Q
Development under Verwoerd
A
- PM of SA from 1958-66, previously Minister of Native Affairs, wrote the Bantu Education Act 1953
- Bantu Self-Government Act 1959 passed during his term
- Allowed blacks to develop separately in their ‘homelands’ or ‘Bantustans’ to appeal to the rest of the world
15
Q
Development Under Vorster
A
- Minister of Justice during Rivonia Trial
- PM 1966-78, during Soweto Uprising
16
Q
Bantu Self-Government Act
A
- 1959
- resettled blacks in 8 different bantustans/homelands
- made these homelands independent and self governing - elected ‘chiefs’ to be cooperative
17
Q
Robert Sobukwe + Sharpeville
A
- Leader of the PAC (Pan-Africanist Congress)
- organised anti-pass protest at sharpeville - peaceful crowd
- sent a letter three days before to attempt to persuade the police to cooperate, be peaceful
- 69 dead during Sharpeville Massacre, 21 March 1960
- sentenced to three years of labour in prison, lived out a quiet life afterwards
18
Q
Treason Trial
A
- December 1956: 156 people arrested for connections to freedom charter; mix of black, white, Indians and coloureds
- all accused of treason and supporting communism
- ‘treason trial’ lasted for five years, all charges dropped eventually
19
Q
MK
A
- ANC and Mandela created a terrorist wing called ‘MK’ or ‘spear of the people’ after the Sharpeville massacre
- Carried out first attacks in 1961, focusing on sabotage to avoid loss of life
- chief targets of power stations + government offices
20
Q
Rivonia Trial
A
- MK headquarters (Lilliesleaf Farm) discovered by police and raided in 1963
- incriminating evidence was found, led to the arrest of nine leading MK members, incl. Mandela
- Trial lasted from Dec 1963 to Jun 1964
- those involved did not receive the death penalty, but life in prison instead, as Mandela threatened martyrdom, along with the vast international publicity and attention received
- through the arrests, the police and government were able to break up and crack down on MK and the ANC inside SA
21
Q
Steve Biko and Black Conciousness
A
- founded SASO (1969), believed that black SAs should work independently without help from whites to obtain their freedom
- set up medical clinics and self-help organisations for poor black communities
- travelled all over SA, wrote extensively about “Black Consciousness”
- black consciousness: idea that white is not the image of all good and perception, but rather the perceptions of people are controlled by whites. Idea of operating as a united racial group in order to challenge societal standards set by whites
- banned in 1973, dead in 1977
22
Q
Soweto Uprising
A
- tension caused by announcement that Afrikaans would be taught in black schools, came across as white oppression, inability to fight back
- protest march arranged on June 16th, 1976, police shot into crowd, killing two and injuring several more
- deaths caused nationwide rioting, lasted for months and even years in some places.
- destruction of 350 schools, 700 blacks dead, 200 private homes destroyed, 6000 arrests (between June 1976- February 1977)
- television turned international opinion against white SA even more
23
Q
Failure of International Opposition pre-1970
A
- Anti Apartheid Movement set up in UK organised a boycott; caimpaigned for people not to buy SAn fruit, sherry and cigarettes
- boycott movement occurred from march 1st to march 31st in the UK 1960
- AAM campaigned also for imposing sanctions and total isolation of South Africa
- SA were able to withstand pressure from the outside world, due to their strong economy
- 5-7% growth, rich in natural minerals, monopoly of essential industrial resources
- UK and US needed SA in their struggle against communism
24
Q
UDF
A
- Formation of a new organisation called the UDF in 1983, included 565 different anti-apartheid groups, such as student groups, trade unions, women’s organisations and church groups
- ## boycotted 1984 elections, 29% of coloured and 19% of Indians voted (succesfull)
25
Q
ANC 1978-90
A
- although banned, they gained influence in the townships in this period
- looked towards a future based on the freedom charter, a multiracial, one adult one vote democracy leaning towards socialism
- guerrilla attacks became more violent, killed innocent people including blacks
26
Q
COSATU
A
- congress of South African trade unions, founded in 1985 December, culmination of 21 trade unions, +0.5m members in late 80s
- 1974, 14,167 lost through strikes VS 1982, 365,337 days lost
27
Q
Church Leaders and Desmond Tutu
A
- Archbishop Desmond Tutu: General Secretary of the SACC, Patron of UDF. Travelled extensively campaigning against Apartheid, won Nobel Peace prize in 1984
- Rev. Allan Boesak: World alliance of reformed churches leader, worked with UDF, ANC member. Worked largely towards 1984 boycott, wrote books about his experience under apartheid.
- Frank Chikane: General Secretary of the SACC after Naude, key member of UDF. Promoted soup kitchens + adult education + Kairos Document (Christian document denouncing apartheid)
- Rev. Beyers Naude: succeeded Tutu as general secretary of the SACC, helped move anti-apartheid campaigners in and out of the country, negotiations for release of political prisoners
28
Q
Botha’s Reforms - Why?
A
- South Africa was facing ruthless and relentless onslaught from communist forces supported by the USSR and China (total onslaught)
- decided that the government would fight this onslaught totally, by military, economic, psychological and political means (total strategy)
29
Q
Botha’s Reforms
A
- played upon communist fears of western leaders like Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan, led to them resisting the UN’s passing sanctions
- became active in border states like Angola and Mozambique, raided MK bases and set up/ supported anti government groups
- military spending increased from 700m rand in 1974 to 3 billion rand in 1981, 250,000 active military personnel in 1981, set up SAn arms industry
- Within SA: aimed to placate white business owners by creating a black middle class. Strategies like: repealing of MM act and passes act (1986), making it legal for Blacks to join trade unions, spent more on black education (3x)
- new constitution with a tricameral government, of representatives of different races
- staged a ‘propaganda war’ that they were fighting against communism on behalf of freedom, democracy, Christianity and free enterprise
30
Q
Impact of Botha’s Reforms on South Africans
A
- increase in trade union activity: 365,337 days of work lost to strikes in 1982, compared to 14,167 in 1974
- formation of groups such as the UDF and COSATU
- caused increasingly violent protest, sparked by the government forcing black councillors to raise rents (30% unemployment)
31
Q
Afrikaner Resistance to Botha’s Reforms
A
- Conservative Party: Botha’s reforms led to split in Nationalist Party, led to formation of the Afrikaner Conservative Party. Won 37% of Afrikaner vote in 1987, 39 seats in 1990
- AWB: more radical party, wanted volkstatt (separate states), was prepared to go to war if not. Prepared to kill prominent national party figures like Botha and Klerk. Led by Terre’Blanche
32
Q
State of Emergency 1985-90
A
- Botha declared state of emergency in July of 1985
- police gained power to arrest without a warrant
- all media was strictly controlled
- 8,000 leading members of the UDF detained, 85% tortured, 500 killed by police in 1985
- brought unrest under control in 1986 after 34,000 detained
- increasing violence ensued from 86-89, descent into civil war - e.g. Stompie Moeketsie (13) leading 1500 u14 boys to burn down a town hall in 1987
- govt. banned COSATU, UDF and 14 other anti-apartheid groups.
33
Q
International Opposition - 1980s
A
- economic sanctions opposed by Thatcher and Reagan
- private companies disagreed, saw apartheid as bad for business(now, not before)
- The Disinvestment Campaign was implemented on a significant scale during the mid-late 80s, e.g. Major global banks declaring that they would make no new loans to SA, causing value of rand to drop by 35% in August of 1985
- in face of this pressure, Botha repealed pass laws, permitted other heads of state/SAn minister of justice to meet Mandela
- US passed ‘The Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986’, essentially imposing official sanctions
34
Q
De Klerk’s Reforms - Why?
A
- didn’t fully realise what he was doing, misled by events in Namibia, underestimated ANC
- if he didn’t abolish apartheid, he would worsen the economic crisis
- was described as practical, was open to/interested in what could work
- deeply religious, may have believed that god had chosen him to create a new SA
35
Q
De Klerk’s Reforms - How?
A
- announced legalisation of ANC, PAC and other groups + release of hundreds of political prisoners and readiness to work with all political groups to create a new constitution
- released Sisulu and other leaders in October 1989, Mandela in February 1990
36
Q
A
37
Q
Mandela 1990-94
A
- leader of ANC
- walked out of CODESA talks in 1992, causing them to ‘fall apart’
- strongly advocated for one man one vote
- criticised de Klerk for stalling
38
Q
De Klerk 1990-94
A
- President of SA, leader of national party
- stalled for time during CODESA
- accused of inciting violence between blacks as a third force
39
Q
Joe Slovo 1990-94
A
- former leader of SAn communist party (succeeded by Chris Hani in 91)
- proposed sunset clause (Nov 1993) + mediated negotiations and agreed a deal
- included: one man one vote, but also a deputy president for any party that won more than 80 seats
40
Q
Cyril Ramaphosa
A
- secretary general of ANC in 1991
- lead ANC negotiations with national party government
- reached negotiational success as a result of mutual respect + good relationship with Roelf Meyer
41
Q
Roelf Meyer
A
- minister of constitutional affairs and communication for national party.
- chief negotiator for national party
42
Q
CODESA
A
- Convention for a Democratic South Africa
- Began in late 1991, to find a new constitution and government for SA
- occurred during continuation of terrible violence
- main disagreement on one man one vote
- talks broke down in 1992 when Mandela walked out as a result of two key events; The Boipatong massacre, The Bisho massacre
- resumed in September of the same year
- sunset clause proposed, agreement reached
- De Klerk and Mandela won Nobel peace prize on 10th December 1993
43
Q
Violence during CODESA
A
- KwaZulu Natal leader, Chief Buthelezi feared he would lose power under an ANC government
- meant that Inkatha and ANC supporters often fought and killed each other
- this relationship was exploited by de Klerk and his government
- white SA police accused of acting as a third force to stir up violence
- white nazi-style supremacist groups like AWB committed atrocious acts
44
Q
The Boipatong Massacre
A
- 17th June 1992
- Inkatha members staying in migrant worker compounds attacked and killed 46 people from the Boipatong township, mostly women and children
- de Klerk refused to comment on the massacre, undermining his integrity as president, led Mandela to walk out
45
Q
The Bisho Massacre
A
- 7th September 1992, 70,000 ANC supporters marched to Bisho (capital) in protest of the Leader of the Ciseki homeland
- 28 people dead, 200 wounded
46
Q
Election of 1994
A
- 14,000 killed in politically related incidents from 1990-94
- 91% of registered voters cast their votes
- ANC won vast majority, failed to get over 66%
- NAtional Party with 20.4%, de Klerk became deputy president
- Buthelezi won 10.5%, became a government minister
