Sources!

Question 1

Keane 2022

Answer 1

Historic Democracies

John Keane (2022): The Shortest History of Democracy (The Experiment)

Question 2

Brennan 2023

Answer 2

Five arguments Pro/Contra democracy

Pro:
Stability: Stability through Shared Power
Virtue: Does Democracy Enlighten and Ennoble?
Wisdom: Two Heads Are Smarter than One
Liberty: The Consent of the Governed?
Equality: Democracy as the Public Expression of Equal Standing

Contra:
Stability: Passion and Polarization
Virtue: Does Democracy Make Us Angry, Mean, and Dumb?
Wisdom: Garbage In, Garbage Out
Liberty: Democracy as the Many-Headed Master
Equality: Is Democratic Equality an Illusion?

Jason Brennan (2023) Democracy: A Guided Tour (OUP)

Question 3

Saward 1994

Answer 3

Necessary conditions of democracy:
- basic freedoms
- citizenship and participation
- administrative codes of compliance
- transparency
- social rights

Saward (1994): Democratic Theory and Indices of Democratization

Question 4

Whitehead 2002

Answer 4

Nature of Democracy: democracy is deliberation and contestation

Three international aspects of democratization:
* contagion: Democratization spreads from country to country, influenced by public opinion and cultural exchange.
* control: Powerful states can promote or prevent democracies based on their interests.
* consent: International factors influence how and where democracies take root, including regional alliances and domestic legitimacy.

Comparison of former soviet satellites and former colonies: once Gorbachev had decided on extensive liberalization within the USSR he could never afford to suppress reform elsewhere, without capitulating to the enemies or reform at home. Somewhat similar issues arise with earlier Western experiences of imperial decolonization.

Whitehead, L, Democratization: Theory and Experience (2002)

Question 5

Gagnon 2021

Answer 5

Democracy as an abandoned science that must be studied to combat authoritarianism

Gagnon: Rescuing an Abandoned Science: The Lexicon of Democracy

Question 6

Dahl 1989

Answer 6

• Focus on Participation
• Self-Governance is freedom
• The desire for self governance (participation) must be fulfilled by a democracy
• Democracy as a process of making collective, binding decisions. Participation of individuals important.

Democracy is based on:
- Personal Autonomy (which importantly leads to equality)
- Procedural Guarantees
- Radical notion of inclusiveness

Dahl, R. Democracy and its Critics (1989)

Question 7

Schumpeter 1978

Answer 7

Focus onCompetition

Capitalism is self-defeating, as competition fades and monopolies are established
Democracy is elite competition (technocratic elites!)
Schumpeter opposes the classic concepts of:
- common good
- expression of popular will
- Rationality of behaviour

==> Democracy only needs to provide for channels for party competition

Schumpeter, J. Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (1978)

Also Xenos (1981)

Question 8

Przeworski 2003

Answer 8

Focus on Balance:
- Democracy as an equilibrium between different interests, system of self government and no distinction between ruled and rulers
- Checks and balances are important, so are institutions: once all parties have accepted democracy asthe only game in town, I.e the institutional framework is not questioned, democracy has become consolidated

Transition to Democracy:
Przeworski argues that transitions depend on calculations and compromises made by elites in power and opposition groups. Their decisions are influenced by factors like economic conditions and international pressures.
“Democratization is the outcome of strategic interactions among rational actors.”

Przeworski Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms

On Democracy as equilibrium

Question 9

Uitz, Sajo 2017

Answer 9

The Constitution of Freedom: An Introduction to Legal Constitutionalism

On separation of powers and checks and balances

Question 10

Urbinati 2006

Answer 10

Focus on representation

Free mandate relation
Sovereign of ppl expressed in appointment of representatives

In Alonso, S. et al (eds) Representative Democracy and its Future (2012)

On representative democracy

Question 11

Linz, Stepan 1996

Answer 11

Democracy is fully “matured” (i.e. consolidated) when:
- nobody attempts to overthrow democracy or attempts to secede
- the public sees democracy as ideal
- all forces throughout the state become subjected and habituated to the legal and democratic resolution of conflicts

Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation

Question 12

Moore 1967

Answer 12

Three kinds of class-based development:
- bourgeois revolution from capitalism to democratic capitalism
- reactionary revolution from capitalism to fascism
- peasant revolution leading to communism

Question 13

Rueschemeyer et al 1992

Answer 13

Democratisation of capitalism: working class demanding incorporation creates democracy

Question 14

The coup in Chile, 1973

Answer 14

Devine (2014): military feared breakdown of social order

Rueschemeyer et al (1992): democracy was institutionalised, but political tension and economic hardship layed groundwork for coup

Question 15

Phillip 1992

Answer 15

“democracy can be vulnerable to atrophy, policy failure and a general sense of futility”

• Clientelism warped democracy, prioritizing private gain and political influence over public good.
• Political control of the courts undermined their impartiality and effectiveness.
• Clientelism in the military hurt morale and led to a failed coup attempt.
• Lack of competition among elites led to a weak system vulnerable to public discontent.
• Corruption thrived in the closed political system, and ethical standards needed to be raised.
• Democracy requires more than elections and parties; an impartial judiciary, effective law enforcement, and quality public services are also crucial.

Question 16

Galbraith 2017

Answer 16

Middle class contentment, working class concerns ignored (focus on USA)

Question 17

Lipset 1959

Answer 17

Democracy has historically arisen as consequence of economic development, and gradually gained legitimacy through effective governance and further creation of wealth

Question 18

Bernhard et al. 2004

Answer 18

Former Spanish colonies have performed better historically in terms of the length of democratic survival and appear to be socially homogeneous and economically developed.
British colonialism had constructive effects for post-colonial democracies in terms of the relationship between the state and civil society compared to other forms of colonialism. In the British case the relationship between the state and civil society seems to be an important. Additionally, longer periods of colonial rule promoted democracy in former British possessions.
French colonialism had only a small positive impact on democracy but hindered development and social cohesion hugely.
African colonies are less likely to survive in comparison to all other colonies. This confirms that there is indeed an “Africa effect.”

The legacy of Western Overseas colonialism on Democratic Survival

Question 19

Huntington 1991

Answer 19

Democratisation has occurred in three waves:
- 1820-1926
- 1945-1962
- 1975-1990s

Huntington (1991): The third Wave

Question 20

Kis, Ash 2018

Answer 20

Hungary as illiberal democracy with no individual rights

Question 21

Ritter 2015

Answer 21

Authoritarian regimes can’t effectively combat domestic opposition lest they face international backlash

Ritter (2015): The Iron Cage of liberalism

Question 22

Levitsky, Way 2020

Answer 22

Autocrats lack the capacity to fully consolidate authoritarianism, and might be reluctant to attempt it due to a lack of international legitimacy. Thus, meaningful institutions exists along serious incumbent abuse; leading to elections remaining competitive (though unfair)

Levitsky, Way, (2020): The New Competetive Authoritarianism

Question 23

Galbraith 2017

Answer 23

Middle class contentment, working class concerns ignored (focus on USA)

Question 24

Schedler 1998

Answer 24

Schedler identifies five possible meanings of democratic consolidation:

Preventing a return to authoritarianism
Stopping the erosion of democratic institutions
Establishing the core mechanisms of democracy
Fulfilling all the requirements of a democracy
Expanding democratic practices and deepening citizen participation

Schedler, A. What is Democratic Consolidation? Journal of Democracy 1998

Question 25

Zakaria 1997

Answer 25

Illiberal Democracy Defined: Zakaria identifies a new category - illiberal democracy. These are countries that hold elections but disregard essential aspects like rule of law, individual rights, and limitations on government power.
The Problem: Zakaria argues that democracy alone doesn’t guarantee a peaceful and prosperous society. It’s liberal democracy, with its emphasis on individual rights and checks on power, that fosters stability.
Consequences: Illiberal democracies, Zakaria warns, can lead to abuses of power, ethnic conflict, and even war.
Policy Implications: He challenges the West’s focus solely on holding elections in promoting democracy. Instead, Zakaria emphasizes the importance of supporting institutions like an independent judiciary and a free press.

Zakaria ‘The Rise of Illiberal Democracy’ Foreign Affairs 1997

Question 26

Brooker 2014

Answer 26

Military Dictatorship
Personal Dictatorship or Monarchy
One Party Rule

Brooker, P. Non-Democratic Regimes (3rd Edition, 2014)

Question 27

Bregolat 1999

Answer 27

Spains transition to democracy

Bregolat, E. (1999). Spain’s Transition to Democracy

Question 28

Gan, George 2021

Answer 28

China claims its authoritarian one-party system is a democracy – and one that works better than the US

In addition to its emphasis on the economic development of the country, the Chinese Communist Party is also arguing that it is a “process-oriented democracy,” pointing to the country’s multi-tier legislative system as proof. In theory, delegates to the village- and county-level legislatures are elected directly by residents, who in turn are tasked with choosing delegates for the level above, and so on. At the very top of the system is the National People’s Congress, a rubber-stamp parliamentary body that convenes annually to approve major decisions and policies made by the party

Question 29

Grugel 2002

Answer 29

Modernisation and globalisation can provide for opportunities for democratisation; even though global capitalism may well runter counter to democracy if it encourages working class disenfranchisement. Democratisation will be successful depending on the nature of the state and the density, thickness and composition of civil society. More precisely
● an active civil society, or at least strong and well-organized social organizations, that pre-dates the transition or, minimally, are established during the course of it (Perez Diaz 1993)
● a complex civil society, made up of a range of different groups, that is able to engage in processes of sustained collective action based on assuring the extension of citizenship rights throughout society
● a transformation of the state, so that it can claim to represent democratically, and to be accountable to, the entire national community though the extension of citizenship to all, or at least most, adults who live within its boundaries
● a state able to mediate conflict, set national goals, deliver public goods and extract the resources required to carry out these functions from society.

Question 30

Leftwich 1996

Answer 30

• Western governments and international institutions have contributed to the democratization process in authoritarian regimes by insisting that authoritarian and military regimes give way to democratic good governance or forfeit aid and assistance.

Conditions for Democratic Politics
Geographical, constitutional, and political legitimacy: The people must accept the territorial definition of the state and their place in it. They must regard the constitution as fair and the regime of power as legitimate.
Loyalty to democratic rules and processes: Losing parties in elections must accept the outcome and not return to ‘anti-democratic’ practices.
Policy restraint: Newly elected democratic governments must exercise policy restraint, avoiding highly contentious policies that threaten major interests, especially where there is no consensus.
Economic development: Stable and secure democracy is seldom found in very poor societies, where the struggle for scarce resources and the advantages of state control can make democracy unlikely.

Challenges to Democratization
Rapid and radical redistribution demands from the poor and their parties can strain the state and economy, leading to potential suspension of democracy.
Sharp ethnic or cultural differences can make it difficult to establish or sustain democracy, especially where they overlap with religious divisions and material inequalities between groups.
Major economic reforms are difficult to accomplish under democratic circumstances, as strong non-democratic regimes are often necessary to manage these changes.

Adrian Leftwich (1996), Two Cheers for Democracy?

Question 31

Fukuyama

Answer 31

1989 Essay: this is the triumph of Liberal Democracy

2006 Book (the end of history):
- growing global acceptance of liberal democracy as a legitimate form of government, particularly when compared to historical rivals like hereditary monarchy, fascism, and communism
- liberal democracy may represent the culmination of humanity’s ideological development, the “final form of human government”. This theory suggests that liberal democracy, unlike previous systems, is free from inherent contradictions.
- the foundation for stable liberal democracies is the balance between liberty and equality. Social problems in modern democracies stem from incomplete application of these principles, not flaws within them.
- a question exists regarding whether liberal democracy might harbor internal contradictions that could threaten its long-term viability, despite its current success.
- criticisms: Leftist critiques focus on the limitations of equal recognition in the face of economic inequality. Right-wing critiques express concern about the potential homogenizing effects of equality and its impact on individual achievement.
- the “Last Man”: referencing Nietzsche’s philosophy, someone content with mere equal recognition but lacking ambition for excellence or accomplishment.
- the long-term success of liberal democracy and the possibility of alternative systems depend on addressing internal contradictions and overcoming challenges to universal recognition.

2022 Article: Ukraine War and Zero Covid prove a continued tendency of weak decision making and little accountability within authoritarian systems. Democracy has to be denfended abroad (like in Ukraine) unless authoritarianism be seen as a a viable alternative at home.

Question 32

Huntington 1993

Answer 32

• shift from ideological conflicts: The Cold War’s bipolarity is over. Future conflicts will be cultural, between civilizations defined by religion, language, and values.
• dominant civilizations: Western civilization, with its emphasis on individualism and democracy, has historically dominated but faces challenges from rising civilizations like Islam and Confucianism.
• fault lines: Borders between civilizations will be the most likely areas of conflict.
• internal conflicts: Societies with elements from multiple civilizations will struggle for internal unity.
• the West’s challenge: The West must maintain its cultural identity and defend its values against challenges from other civilizations

Question 33

Maeda 2010

Answer 33

Types of democratic Breakdown
- a dem. government is toppled by a force outside of the government, such as the military (exogenous)
- democracy subverted from within (endogenous)

The study finds that lower levels of economic development and economic growth rates increase the risk of military coups (exogenous termination). However, the economic factors do not have a significant impact on the risk of endogenous termination. Incumbent democratic leaders are more likely to end the democratic process themselves in a presidential system than in a parliamentary system. This suggests that the type of political system plays a role in the risk of endogenous termination.

Peru 1992: Alberto Fujimori sought to end a political deadlock by shutting down the congress and suspending the constitution, essentially ending the democratic process himself

Question 34

Linz 1994

Answer 34

Linz believes presidentialism leads to higher rates of democratic breakdown. Three citicisms of presidentialism:

1. Dual legitimacy and deadlock: since the president is not elected by parliament, they can end up blocking each other.
2. Rigidity: it is difficult to dissolve a political deadlock, which may tempt politicians into seeking extralegal solutions. Because of fixed terms, thepolitical process becomes discontinuous, and the system is unable to readjust itself in the case of drastic political and social change.
3. Winner takes all: the competition for the presidency tends to be an excessively heated zero-sum game where the winner takes all. Elected presidents can feel a sense of personal mandate, leading them into a plebiscitary leadership style. Term limits also give presidents a sense of urgency that leads to ‘‘ill-designed policies, rapid implementation, and impatience with the opposition’’

Question 35

Levitsky, Ziblatt 2018

Answer 35

Four Key Indicators of Authoritarian Behavior (Litmus text for exclusion in democracy)

1. Rejection of (or weak commitment to) democratic rules of the game
2. Denial of the legitimacy of political opponents
3. Toleration or encouragement of violence
4. Readiness to curtail civil liberties of opponents, including media

Question 36

Brooks, de Bruin 2021

Answer 36

Five categories of action to democratic breakdown

1. Regulating participation in elections
   
   • Restricting voting
   • Gerrymandering
2. Controlling election administration
   
   • Partisan election administrators
   • Administrators claiming fraud
3. Consolidating elite and public support for anti- democratic actions
   
   • “independent state legislature” doctrine: Legislature makes final determination about election outcomes
   • Doubting legitimacy of elections
4. Engaging in political violence
   
   • Endorsing political violence (January 6.)
   • Voter intimidation
5. Politicizing the military and National Guard
   
   • Using police and military as partisan allies on their side as a means of legitimizing their advocacy for challenging election outcomes.

Question 37

Merkel 2014

Answer 37

Is capitalism compatible with democracy?
- clear and distinct tension between capitalism and democracy
- capitalism can prosper under both democratic and authoritarian regimes but that so far, democracy has existed only with capitalism.
- nevertheless, capitalism and democracy are guided by different principles that create tensions between the two
- Deregulated and globalized markets have seriously inhibited the ability of democratic governments to govern. If these challenges are not met with democratic and economic reforms, democracy may slowly transform into an oligarchy, formally legitimized by general elections
- It is not the crisis of capitalism that challenges democracy, but its neoliberal triumph.

Question 38

Mussolini 1932

Answer 38

Fascism sees the nation not just as a collection of individuals, but as a cohesive entity with a shared identity, history, and purpose. True democracy, from the fascist perspective, is achieved when the nation is considered in terms of its qualitative aspects, such as its ethical values, coherence, and truthfulness. In this sense, democracy is not just about the will of the majority but about the expression of the nation’s conscience and will, which may initially be embodied in the few but eventually become embraced by the whole.

Question 39

Hoppe 2001

Answer 39

Incentives for Short-Term Thinking: Hoppe argues that democratically elected politicians have short time horizons, as they focus on winning the next election rather than implementing policies with long-term benefits. This leads to policies that may be popular in the short term but detrimental in the long term.
Taxation and Redistribution: He criticizes democracy for enabling the majority to use the state to forcibly extract wealth from the minority through taxation and redistribute it according to their preferences, which he views as unjust.
Public Debt: Hoppe contends that democracy encourages governments to accumulate public debt since politicians can promise benefits without immediately having to raise taxes to pay for them, burdening future generations with the consequences.
Erosion of Property Rights: According to Hoppe, democracy often results in the erosion of property rights as politicians cater to special interests and engage in regulatory and redistributive policies that undermine individual liberty and economic freedom.
Democratic Decision-Making: He argues that democratic decision-making processes are inherently flawed due to the irrationality and ignorance of the majority of voters, leading to suboptimal outcomes and the tyranny of the majority.

Question 40

Brennan 2016

Answer 40

Democracy, as commonly practiced, is flawed and often leads to poor outcomes. Brennan suggests that the majority of voters are ignorant or irrational, which undermines the legitimacy of their decisions.

Brennan instead advocates for epistocracy, a system where political power is allocated to those with greater knowledge or competence, as a superior alternative to democracy. He contends that epistocracy would lead to better governance and more just outcomes.

Question 41

Beetham 1997

Answer 41

• Markets can be both support and also undermine democratic institutions
• The market is not only supportive to democratic (can also be the opposite)

Question 42

Przeworski, Limongi 1993

Answer 42

• Economic growth alone does not cause democracy
• Even thought it might survive better

Question 43

Frank 1971

Answer 43

• Challenged the assumption that economic growth leads to democracy
• It can also lead to authoritarian capitalism

Question 44

Weissmann 2013

Answer 44

Marshall Plan spread democracy

Question 45

Woods 1982

Answer 45

Democratisation of US, contrast to Athens

Question 46

Nohlen 1980

Answer 46

• Analytical misconception of tradition by (1) treating it as a residual category of anything and everything that is not modern in which are thus subsumed a number of highly diverse socio-political structures and modes of conduct, and (2) taking no notice of colonial deformation when applying the concept to post- colonial structures and situations.
• Concentration of the problem perspective on the internal structures and endogenous factors obstructing development, and thereby distraction from the internal dimension and external factors obstructing development
• Focalization of individual disciplines on segmental factors and a tendency to attribute underdevelopment to singular causal factors.