SOCY 210 Final Flashcards
Two Common Realities: Experimental and Agreement
Experimental Reality
The things we know from direct experience
Agreement Reality
Things we consider real because we have been told they are real, and the majority seem to agree
Empirical
Based on, concerned with or verifiable by observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic
The Role of Science
Science offers a special approach to discovering reality through experience
Agreement Reality
Tradition
Things that are known through an accumulated body of knowledge
Authority
Trusting the judgement of someone believed to have special expertise
Population
All possible cases that represent what you are interested in studying
Sample
A subset of a population
Common Errors Made in Casual Observation
Inaccurate observation
Overgeneralization
Selective observation
Illogical reasoning
A scientific understanding of the world must…
Provide an understanding of reality that makes sense (logic - theory)
Correspond to what we empirically observe
Theoretical Approach
Inductive
Moves from the specific to the general
From a set of observations to the discovery of a pattern among them
Deductive
Moves from the general to the specific
From a theoretically expected pattern to observations that test the presence of the pattern
Purpose of Research: Description
Observe and describe the scope of a problem or policy response
Describe the characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied
Purpose of Research: Explanation
A researcher has an explanatory purpose if they want to learn about causal relationships between variables
Accounting for events that have occurred in the past
Science
Causal reasoning
Recognition that future circumstances are rooted or conditioned by present ones
Probabilistic reasoning
The idea that effects occur more often when causes are absent
Confirmation Bias
Tendency to seek out and interpret information that supports one’s existing views
Gambler’s Fallacy
The mistaken belief that random events will “balance” out over time
Concrete Experience
Empirical experience of sensation
(Touch, taste, smell, etc. )
Percepts
Components of concrete experience
Abstract Experience
Imaginary experiences occurring in the mind
Concepts
Properties of objects that can change
Propositions
Ideas expressing the relationship between concepts
Values
Statements of what is preferable or desirable
Variables
Properties of objects that can change
E.g. Gender, blood type, social class
Attributes
Different scores that comprise a variable
E.g. Male, A, Middle
Constants
Properties that do not change across objects over
Relationship
A connection identified by a change in one thing being associated with a systematic change in another
Dependent Variable
Changes based on the independent variable
It is examined and explained
Independent Variable
Manipulated by researcher
Produces changes in dependent variables
Idiographic Explanation
Accounting that aims to understand or make sense of the multiple causes of a specific event
Nomothetic Explanation
Identifies a few common causes of a broad category of events
Pure Research
Investigations driven by curiosity and satisfied by understanding something previously unknown
Applied Research
Investigations directed toward insights to allow us to live more effectively or efficiently
Mixed Methods Research (MMR)
Research that combines quantitive and qualitative
Why Use MMR?
Triangulation
Advantage of using different methods to get multiple views
Uses different methods, observers or data sources
Compares different viewpoints and detects what they have in common
Offsetting Strengths and Weaknesses
Takes advantage of / compensates for differences
Experiments may not capture the contextual complexity of the real world
Complementarity
Can generate an understanding of different aspects of a phenomenon
These findings can be generated to more comprehensive conclusions
Seeks to increase meaningfulness and completeness of conclusions
Development
Findings can help shape or inform the findings of another method in order to strengthen and enrich results
MMR Notational System
Primary Method
Written in uppercase (QUAL or QUAN)
Secondary Method
Written in lowercase (qual or quan)
A plus sign indicates a concurrent/parallel design in which both approaches are employed simultaneously
An arrow indicates a sequential design in which one approach follows
If both methods are given equal priority, then they are both uppercase
Theory
A set of interrelated propositions providing a logical explanation of empirical regularities and used for understanding observed realities
Macro Theory
Deals with large, aggregate entities of society or even whole societies
Micro Theory
Deals with issues of social life at the levels of individuals and small groups
Paradigm
A theoretical perspective including a set of assumptions about reality that guide research questions
Hypothesis
An expectation about an empirical reality, based on theory, that can then be tested through research
The Traditional Model of Science – The Research Process
Conceptualization
Specifying the abstract concepts that make up a theory and the nature of the relationships at work
Operationalization
Specifying the observable indicators of the concepts under consideration
Observation
Look at the world systematically and observe our variables based on how we’ve operationalized them
Inductive and Grounded Theory
Identify theory for observations, as opposed to starting with theory
Inductive approaches sometimes build new social science theory
Grounded theory = a type of theory built based on observation
How Social Science is Related to Public Policy
Theory should guide research, and results from research should be used to develop policies
Policies are specified expectations about empirical reality, policies should be confirmed with research
Social Regularities
Represent probabilistic patterns
A general pattern does not have to be reflected 100% of the observable cases to be a pattern
Aggregate
The whole formed by combining disparate elements
Social scientists study social patterns (aggregate information), not individual ones
Two Categories of Ethical Obligations
Ethical obligations to subjects
Ethical obligations to the scientific community
Ethical Obligations to Subjects
- No harm
- Voluntary participation
- Anonymity/confidentiality
Anonymity
When a researcher ensures that information collected cannot be linked with the identity of subjects - Confidentiality
When a researcher can link information collected with the identity of a subject, but not publically - Deception
Ethical Obligations to Scientific Community
Make shortcomings and/or negative findings known
Must tell the truth about pitfalls and problems experiences
Theories Function in 3 Ways
- Prevent being taken in by flukes
- Make sense of observed patterns and suggestions
- Shape and direct research efforts
Four Sociological Patterns
- Functionalism
Macro
Values
A state of equilibrium - Conflict Theory
Macro
Class inequality
Elimination of privilege - Symbolic Interactionism
Micro
Meaning
Respect for and the validity of minority views - Feminist Theory
Micro and macro
Patriarchy
Elimination of gender inequality
Rationality
Criterion for assessing thinking in terms of its logical consistency
Reasonableness
A quality of mind that is open to new ideas and evidence
Objectivity
A series of observations with high intersubjective reliability
Positivism
Belief in an objective reality independent of human experience
Empirical Deduction
Logical process for transforming a theoretical proposition into a research hypothesis
Hypothesis Testing
Determining if expectations specified in a hypothesis are confirmed by empirical patterns
Framing a Research Hypothesis
- Indicators
- Hypothesis statement
- Falsifiability
Operational Definition
Specific steps of measuring abstract concepts at the concrete level
Measurement
The process of quantifying observations by assigning numbers to attributes composing a variable
Falsification
Criterion possible for empirical evidence to disconfirm a hypothesis
Axioms
Theoretical propositions that are assumed to be true
3 Core Principals of Research Ethics Boards (REBs)
- Respect for persons
Consent
Respect and production for autonomy - Concern for welfare
Quality of life
Privacy and control of information about participants - Justice
Treating people fairly and equitably
Disclosure
Data that can be attributed to individual respondents are released
Types of Disclosure
Identity Disclosure
An Individual can be identified from the released output, leading to information being provided about the identified subject
Attribute Disclosure
When confidential information is revealed and can be attributed to an individual. It is not necessary for the individual to be identified/for a specific value to be given for attribute disclosure to occur
Residual Disclosure
When released information can be combined to obtain confidential data
Generability
The goal of research findings being applicable to as broad a population as possible
Debriefing
Interviewing subjects following their participation in a research project to ensure they’re fully informed and not harmed
Purpose of Research: Exploration
Explore a topic or to familiarize the researcher with that topic
Researcher examines a new interest/relatively new subject
Units of Analysis
The object of a study’s interest
Case
A specific object to which evidence refers, objects from which evidence is collected
Individual Data
Evidence gathered about cases that are about specific individuals
Aggregate Data
Evidence gathered about cases that are about a collection of individuals
Social Artifact
Product of human activity
3 Conditions for Casual Connection
Variables systematically change together
The independent variable changed before observed changes in the dependent variable
The observed relationship is authentic
Causes
Mechanisms or reasons leading to an outcome
Establishing Causality Criteria
- Variables are correlated
- Cause occurs before the effect
- Variable connection is a nonspurious
Ecological Fallacy
The reasoning error that occurs when conclusions about individuals are based solely on group observation
Exception Fallacy
The reasoning error occurs when conclusions about aggregates are drawn from individual cases
Criteria for Nomothetic Causality
Correlation/Association
Time Oder/Sequence
Nonspuriousness/Authenticity
Control Variable
A variable identifying the context for the relationship between independent and dependent variables
Control Variable
A variable identifying the context for the relationship between independent and dependent variables
Necessary Condition
Condition that must be present for a specific outcome to occur
Sufficient Condition
Condition that when present produces a specific outcome
Analytic Induction
Understanding events relies on grounding concepts in empirical observation and progressively sharpening them through iteration
Panel Attrition
Increasing participants’ unresponsiveness over time that reduces the accuracy of longitudinal changes
Cross-Sectional Study
A study based on observations representing single point in time
Longitudinal Study
A study design involving the collection of data at different points in time
Trend Study
A type of longitudinal study in which a given characteristic of some population is monitored over time
Cohort Study
A study in which some specific subpopulation or cohort is studied overtime. Although, data may be collected from different members in each set of observations
Panel Study
A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected from the same set of people at several points in time
Reflection
Mistake of treating a conceptual construction as something real
Specification
Process of clarifying the meaning of concepts
Conceptual Definitions
Meaning of an abstract term by expressing it in other abstract terms
Dimensions
A specifiable aspect or facet of conception
Tautology
Thinking error that claims to explain something by referring to itself
Exhaustive
Property of a variable ensuring all objects can be classified
Mutually Exclusive
Ensuring that every object can be classified into only one attribute
Nominal Measure
A variable whose attributes have only the characteristics of being jointly exhaustive and mutually exclusive
Ordinal Measure
A level of measurement describing a variable with attributes one can rank-order along some dimension
Interval Measure
A level of measurement describing a variable whose attributes are rank-ordered and have equal distances between adjacent attributes
Ratio Measure
A level of measurement describing a variable whose attributes have all the qualities of nominal, ordinal, and interval measures and in addition are based on a “true zero” point
E.g. Age
Precision
The property that refers to the fineness of measurement distinctions
Accuracy
Refers to the correctness of measurements
Reliability
That quality of measurement method that suggests that the same data would have been collected each time in repeated observations of the same phenomenon
Reliability Tests
Test-retest method
Split half method
Using established measures
Reliability of research workers
Validity
A term describing a measure that accurately reflects the concept it is intended to measure
Face Validity
That quality of an indicator that makes it seem a reasonable measure of some variable
Criterion-Related Validity
The degree to which a measure relates with some external criterion
Construct Validity
The degree to which a measure relates to other variables as expected within a system of theoretical relationships
Content Validity
The degree to which a measure covers the range of meanings included within a concept
Internal Validity
The approximate truth of claims about the specific nature of a causal relationship
External Validity
Related to generalizing study results
The degree to which the conclusions in your study would hold for others in other places at other times
Index
A type of composite measure that combines multiple items that when aggregated, are intended to represent some more general dimension
Scale
A type of composite measure composed of several items that have a logical or empirical structure among them
Types of Experiments
Randomized Experiment
An experiment in which units are assigned to treatment or control conditions randomly
Quasi-Experiement
An experiment in which units are not assigned to conditions randomly
Natural
An experiment in which units are outside of control because of a naturally occurring event
Experiment Settings
Laboratory
An experiment conducted under highly controlled, artificial conditions – not necessarily a laboratory
Field
An experiment conducted in real-world settings
Confederate
Fake participant who is in on the study
Double-Blind Experiment
Both subjects and experimenters do not know which subjects are in the experimental group or control group
Dichotomous Variable
Variable that has two attributes
Hawthorne Effect
The presence of researchers affected the behaviour of the participants
Consists of any impact of research on the subject of study
Matching
Pairs of subjects are matched on the basis of their similarities on one or more variable – one is assigned to the experiment group while one is assigned to the control group
External Invalidity
Refers to the possibility that conclusions drawn from experimental results may not be generalizable to the “real” world
Pygmalion Effect
Differences in study outcomes attributable to the researcher’s expectations of participants
Solomon 4 - Group Design
Adds experimental and control groups that skip pre-testing or post-testing as it may effect subjects
Two Fundamental Approaches to Sampling
Probability sampling
Known population
Generalize from observed to unobserved cases
All cases have an equal chance of being selected
Non-probability sampling
When it is impossible to select a probability sample
Challenges of Sampling
Random and systematic
they produce biased samples, patterns of mistakes are more common than others
Samples are more representative of the population if sample aggregate characteristics approximate population characteristics
Purposive Sample
Sample on basis of your judgement and purpose of study
Ideal if members are easily identified
Target places relevant to research
Snowball Sampling
Identifying a single or small number of subjects
Asking subjects to identify others like them who may be willing to participate in the study
Quota Sampling
Creates a matrix that breaks down target population with key variables necessary to mimic qualities of the population
Selects a sample available from cases until quota in the matrix is filled
Selected through reliance on available subjects
Non-Probability Sample
Goal is to understand selected collective
Doesn’t guard against sampling error
Sample Element
Who or what is being studied
Sample Statistic
The summary description of a given variable in the sample
Population Parameter
The actual or assumed value for a given variable in the whole population
Simple Random Sampling
- Identifying the sampling frame
- Determining a necessary sample size
- Each element is assigned a number
- Random number generation is used to select which element will be included in the sample
Stratified Sampling
Method for obtaining a greater degree of representation
Systematic Sampling
Pattern to the overall selection of elements
Every “n”th element is selected
First the element is selected randomly, with every “n” element selected in the list
Multistage Cluster Sampling
Research may require selection from the population that is not easily listed
Involves a multistage approach with an initial sampling of groups of elements within each of the selected clusters
Involves listing and sampling
Informat
Someone well versed in the social phenomenon that you wish to study and is willing to tell you what he or she knows
Sampling Bias
Systematic error derived from using nonprobability samples that produces unrepresentative results
Saturation
A sample principle used in qualitative studies that encourages adding cases until new insights are unlikely
Equal Probability of Selection Method (EPSEM)
Each member of a population has the same chance of being selected into the sample
Representativeness
A sample having the same distribution of characteristics as the population from it was selected
Sampling Error
Discrepancy between characteristics of a probability sample and population
Element
Unit of population is composed and which is selected in the sample
Study Population
Aggregation of elements from which a sample is actually selected
Sampling Unit
An element or set considered for selection in some stage of sampling
Sampling Frame
List of units that make up a population from which a sample is selected
Sampling Interval
The standard distance (k) between elements selected from a population sample
Sampling Interval = Population Size ➗Sample Size
Sampling Ratio
Proportion of elements in the population that are selected to be in a sample
Sampling Ratio = Sample Size ➗Population Size
Stratification
Grouping of units making up a population into homogenous groups before sampling
PPS (Probability Proportionate to Size)
Multistage cluster sample, clusters are selected with probabilities proportionate to their sizes
Weighting
Units selected with unequal probabilities are assigned weights in such manner to make the sample representative of the population
Data From Agency Records
Agencies collect a vast amount of data that they are occasionally willing to share with researchers
Secondary Analysis
Analyzing data previously collected by another researcher
Content Analysis
Examining a class of social artifacts
Unobtrusive
Already would exist independent of research
Obtrusive
Changed the way things operate for research
Non-Public Agency Records
Produce data not released to public
Will make non-public data available upon request
Meta-Form Analysis
Combines results of multiple secondary data sources to access findings
Advantages of Secondary Research
Cheaper and faster
Benefit from quality researchers’ skills
Access international data easily
Disadvantages of Secondary Research
Validity and reliability concerns
Limited to what exists
Quality of data acquired may be low
May be recorded inconsistently and haphazardly
Coding
How data is measured in content analysis
Classifying or categorizing individual pieces of data
Open Coding
Going over content in its totality and looking for overarching themes
The original conceptualization of the qualitative evidence into meaningful categories
Selective Coding
Involves looking for themes in the reduced versions of your data
Manifest Content
Visible, surface content that is directly observable
Latent Content
Underlying content meaning that is not directly observable
Nonreactive Research
Methods of studying social behaviour without affecting it
Analysis of existing statistics
Secondary analysis
Content analysis
Comparative research
Unobtrusive Online Research
Observing activities online
Historical and Comparative Research
Venerable history in the social sciences
Qualitative
Observation and analyze historical records
Examination of societies overtime and in comparison with each other
Deviant Case Testing
Examines outliers in comparison to typical cases to gain a sense of how generalized an insight is
Analytic Induction
Searching for general insights by systematically looking for patterns among individual cases
Discourse Analysis
Qualitative methods for examining texts to explore how meaning, knowledge and power are created and recreated in everyday experience
Visual Sociology
Study of society, culture and social relationships through the analysis of audio-visual artifacts
Strengths of Content Analysis
Time and money
No research staff
No equipment
Permits the study process over a long time
Weaknesses of Content Analysis
Limited to recorded communications
Non-Experimental Surveys
Provide insight on how people feel about social policy
Item Construction Guidelines
Choose appropriate item formats
Make items clear
Avoid “double-barreled” questions
Respondents muct be competent to answer
Respondents must be willing to answer
Items must be relevant
Short items are best
Avoid biased items and terms
Main Methods of Survey Administration
Self-administered
Interviewer administered (face to face)
Telephone administered
Survey Response Rate
Number of completed survey responses ➗total number of survey respondents
Survey Strengths
Ideal for collecting information from a large population
High level of reliability
Survey Weaknesses
Superficial in coverage of complex topics
Superficial in representing realities of sample elements
Artificial in capturing realities of sample elements
Inflexible to adjustment once initiated
Limited validity
Push Poll
Telephone survey designed to influence respondents’ attitudes and opinions for political purposes
Questionnaire
Research instrument containing questions and other types of items designed to gather information about specific variables
Social Desirability
Form of bias occuring when respondents answer with socially acceptable views rather than their own
Questionnaire Bias
Form of systematic error that occurs when properties of questions or statements encourage responses in a particular direction
Contingency Question
Survey question intended for only some respondents, determined by their responses to some other question
Matrix Question Format
Efficient format for presenting closed ended questionnaire items that have the same response categories
Response Set
Form of bias occurring when respondents use a consistent physical pattern to answer
Pre-Coding
Embedded numerical translation of questionnaire responses into the instrument
Rate of Return Graph
A daily plot of total (cumulative) number of completed surveys
Paradata
Any data that provides information about data collection throughout the data collection process
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI)
Face-to-face interviewing system
Questions are provided on a computer
Responses are entered into the computer by the interviewer
Computer-Assisted Self-Interviewing (CASI)
No interviewer
Participant reads and listens to questions on a computer
Types answers directly into computer
Computer-Assisted Web Interviewing (CAWI)
Interviewee reads and fills out
questionnaire online
Probe
Technique used to solicit a more complete answer to a question
Specification
Explanatory or clarifying comment about handling a difficult or confusing situation that may occur regarding particular questions in an interview
Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI)
Survey research technique in which the telephone interviewer reads the questions from the computer monitor and enters them in on the computer
Field Research
Involves observing and potentially interacting with people and phenomena in their natural habitat
Encompasses direct observation and asking questions
Observer Roles
Complete participant
Participants aren’t aware of the researcher and fully interact with them
E.g. 21 Jump Street
Participant as observer
Researcher is immersed and participants know, becomes friends or colleagues with them
Observer as participant
Plays a neutral role, is immersed and participants know
Complete observer
Just observes
Inductive Field Research
Make initial observations
Develop tentative conclusions that suggest further focus for further observations
Make follow-up observations
Revisit prior observations
Continue cycle until a point of saturation is reached
Saturation
When sampling more data will not lead to the production of new information
Ethnography
Focused on detailed and accurate description rather than explanation
Gives comprehensive perspective
Observe phenomenon as completely as possible
Unstructured Interviews
Least restrictive style of interviewing
Two main approaches
Conversations
Informal where conversation flows organically
Interview guide
A list of topical areas that will be covered but not a set of questions
Focus Groups
A directed discussion with a small group of people
Led by a moderator who helps to facilitate discussion
Natural Groups
Individuals who are already acquainted
Artificial Groups
Consists of individuals brought together based on shared criteria
Field Notes
Observations are recorded as written notes
Structured Observations
Observers mark close-ended items that provide structured measures
Transcription
Writing out recorded interview conversations verbatim
Documenting Research Process Through Memoing
Operational
Steps taken at each stage
Coding
Documenting the process of coding your data
Analytic
Record of how you explored relationship in your data
Elements of Social Life Appropriate For Field Research
Practices
Behaviour like talking
Episodes
Events like divorce, crime
Encounters
Two or more people meeting and interacting
Roles and social types
The positions people occupy and their behaviour
Social and personal relationships
Behaviour appropriate to pairs or sets of roles
Groups and cliques
Small groups like cliques and teams
Organizations
Formal organizations like hospitals or schools
Settlements and habitats
Villages, neighbourhoods
Subcultures and lifestyle
Phenomenology
Idea that reality is socially constructed
Case Study
Detailed, focused investigation of a single instance of some social phenomenon
Reactivity
Change in behaviour that may result when people know that they’re being observed
Ground Theory
Inductive approach that attempts to derive theory from analysis of patterns, categories discovered in observational data
Theoretical Sampling
Selection of cases based on illustrative, theoretical relevance
Constant Comparative Method
Researching moving back and forth between theory and data; concepts and categories and hypotheses are constantly checked against and elaborated in light of new data and observations
Extended Case Method
Uses case study observations to discover flaws in and to improve existing social theories
Institutional Ethnography
Uses personal experiences of individuals to uncover the institutional power relations that structure and govern their experiences
Participatory Action Research
Researcher serves as a resource to those being studied
Goal of increasing their ability to act effectively in their own interest
Types of Field Notes
Cryptic notes
Jotted down quick
Detailed descriptions
Analytic notes
Ideas
Subjective notes
Observation, reflection
Strengths of Field Research
Depth
Inexpensive
Flexible
Weaknesses of Field Research
Not appropriate for statistics of a larger population
Valid, but not reliable
Qualitative Interview
Interviewer has a general plan of inquiry but not a rigid set of questions that must be asked in a specific way and order
Semi-Structured Interview
Organized around a specific set of questions or themes
Rapport
An open and trusting relationship between researcher and respondent
Interview Process
Themarizing
Clairfying the purpose of the interviews and concepts
Designing
Laying out the process through which you will accomplish your purpose
Interviewing
Transcribing
Analyzing
Interview Guide
Manual for consultation that helps organize the interview process
Selected transcription
Only research relevant parts of a recorded interview into text
In-Depth Interview Study
Qualitative, one-on-one interviewing is the primary means of data gathering
Oral History
Uses in-depth interviews as means of gathering data about the past from individuals’ recollections. Focusing on specific events or periods of time
Evaluation Research
A research purpose rather than a specific research method. It is applied research, intended on having some real world effect
undertaken to determine the effect of some social intervention, like programs aimed at slowing a social problem
Social Intervention
An action taken in a given social context with the goal of producing an intended outcome
Needs Assessment Studies
Determine the existence and extent of problems among a segment of the population
Cost Benefit Studies
Whether results of a program can be justified by its expense
Monitoring Studies
Providing flow of information about something of interests
Evaluation Assessments are Conducted for Two Purposes
Formative Evaluations
Assessments aimed at improving the process of an intervention
Summative Evaluations
Assessments aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of an intervention in achieving its goals
Response Variable
The outcome measured to determine a program’s effectiveness
Time-Series Design
Involves measurements made over some period
Nonequivalent Control Group
A control group that is similar to the experimental group but is not created by random assignment of subjects
Multiple Time-Series Designs
The use of more than one set of data collected overtime in order to make comparisons
Social Indicators
Measurements that reflect the quality and nature of social life. They are monitored to determine the nature of social change in a society
Evidence-Based Policy
A policy intervention is a social action taken for the purpose of producing an intended result
Should be founded on evidence
Should have most supportive evidence
Policy Demands
Consideration of ultimate goals and strategies for achieving goals
Resource allocation necessary for various strategies
Draft standard course of action to achieve goals
Policy Outputs
Means to achieve desired policy goals
Policy Impacts
Assess if the policy action is achieving the goal it was intended to achieve
Qualitative Analysis
Methods for examining research without converting it into numerical form
Interplay between theory and analysis
Seeks to discover patterns such as changes overtime or possible causal links between variables
Discovering Patterns in Qualitative Analysis
Search for similarities and dissimilarities
Similarities seek patterns of interaction and events
Notice a commonality and become more deliberate in observing its frequency
Questions That Make Sense of Data
Frequency – how often something occurs
Magnitude – levels of something
Structures – different types of something
Processes – order
Causes – why something happens
Consequences
Cross-Case Analysis
Use of either a case-oriented or a variable-oriented approach to compare cases in the search for pattern description and explanation
Variable-Oriented Analysis
Examination of a limited set of considerations (variables) across a large number of cases in search of a nomothetic explanation
Case Oriented Analysis
The detailed examination of limited set of particular cases in search of idiographic explanation
Ground Theory Method
An inductive approach to theory construction using the constant comparative method
Constant Comparative Method
Inductive approach that relies on continuously comparing observations with one another and the evolving inductive theory
Comparing incidents applicable to each category
Look for evidence of the same phenomenon in other cases
Integrating categories and their properties
Researcher begins to note relationships among concepts
Delaminating the theory
Researcher can ignore some concepts that were initially noted but are irrelevant to the inquiry
Theory becomes simpler
Writing theory
Researcher must put feelings into words to be shared with others
Semiotics
The study of signs and the meanings associated with them
Conversion Analysis
The search to understand basic structures of social interaction and social order through the detailed study of everyday talk
Narrative Analysis
Strategies for analyzing text (talk, document) that focus on how people use stories to make sense of themselves, experiences and the world
Overall reading to get a sense of how the narrative is structured and the general theme
Do multiple readings to identify different “voices” and create a view of these selves
Read until there are contradictions. Different themes create sensible patterns and enter into a coherent unity
Work enters a larger theoretical literature so that the researcher can remain sensitive to nuances of meanings expressed and the different contexts into which meanings may enter
Axial Coding
Re-Examination of open coding in search of conceptual refinements and connections
Selective Coding
Search for conceptual themes that link the conceptualized evidence into an intergraded narrative
Memoing
The process of writing memos containing ideas and insights developed during the collection and analysis of qualitative data
Theoretical Notes
Reflections of the dimensions and deeper meanings of concepts, relationships among concepts, theoretical propositions
Operational Notes
Deals with primarily methodological issues
Concept Mapping
The process of putting emerging concepts and their relationships into a graphical format
Thematic Analysis
Reviewing a dataset to identify patters within it that are described as themes
Familiarization
Coding
Generating themes
Reviewing themes
Defining and naming themes
Writing up
