Sociology Flashcards - Sheet1
MCAT Kaplan Sociology
1
Q
Define Culture of Poverty
A
Attempts to explain the cycle of poverty. The poor not only lack resources but also acquire a poverty-perpetuating system where they are resigned to their socio-economic position.
2
Q
The “Double Jeopardy” or “Triple Jeopardy” hypotheses is best demonstrated by what social inequality concept? Define this concept.
A
Intersectionality (Crenshaw). There are different kinds of discrimination and we have to consider the overlapping of these different kinds of discrimination in social inequality situations. These individuals are often at higher mental risk. For example, an African-American female who is also Muslim.
3
Q
What is the structuralist perspective when it comes to social inequality?
A
One looks at societal structures/institutions when implementing changes to affect social inequality. For example, educational training and opportunities to all social groups to improve social inequality.
4
Q
What is the “broken windows hypothesis”?
A
It is the normalization and signaling effect of social disorder and vandalism leading to the exacerbation of other crimes. This means that monitoring/preventing small crimes, like vandalism, will deter more serious crimes from happening and help creates an atmosphere of order.
5
Q
What is social disorganization theory?
A
Conditions of a neighbourhood shapes the likelihood that a person in that environment will participate in crime. Environment includes poverty levels, ethnic heterogeneity, and ecological factors.
6
Q
What is alienation of labour?
A
Marx - factory workers lose their ability to determine their destinies and the ability to own the goods they produce
7
Q
What are formal and informal control mechanisms?
A
Tools for crime prevention. Formal - police and laws. Informal - family, neighbours, and friends
8
Q
Define the three different types of social system constructs as they relate to social mobility and stability.
A
Caste System - Low social mobility and high social stability. Class System - Mid social mobility and mid social stability. Meritocracy - High social mobility and low social stability.
9
Q
What is Absolute and Relative Poverty?
A
Absolute Poverty is the same for everyone in the world. It is what is minimally required for survival (water, food, shelter) whereas Relative Poverty depends on society. This is often higher than Absolute Poverty and rises with the resources of the country where it’s derived from. It is the exclusion of individuals from society due to the socio-economic gap that allows for access to education and health care. Relative Poverty is also dependent on the area - so you can live in Relative Poverty even if you live in an affluent area. It depends on the overall SES of the people around you.
10
Q
What is Social Reproduction?
A
The socio-economic standing of the parent is transferred to the child. The higher financial (money/education), social (networks), and cultural (foreign exposure, art appreciation, language) capital of the parents leads to success and similar financial, social, and cultural capital of the offsprings.
11
Q
What is Social Exclusion?
A
Removal from the core of society via poverty, mental/physical health, discrimination, and lack of education/housing/jobs.
12
Q
What is Environmental Justice?
A
Fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens across society. Those with lower SES tend to have more more environment hazards and less access to amenities due to low social and political power.
13
Q
What are two types of segregation?
A
Concentration - clustering in a certain region.Centralization - clustering in the central area.
14
Q
Define Class and False Consciousness
A
Class consciousness is solidarity and knowledge of people in their own class; the realization of the struggle and the means for improvement. False consciousness it the inability to see exploitation and oppression of the common class due to the promotion of workers, etc. Workers take on the same interest as the factory owners.
15
Q
Define Actor/Observer Bias
A
Fundamental Attribution Error v. How We View Our Own Behavior and Actions. We lean more towards external factors when it comes to judging ourselves rather than internal factors.
16
Q
How is success and failure observed in individualistic and collectivist societies?
A
In individualistic societies, success is over-attributed to internal factors (disposition) whereas failure is attributed to external/situational factors (situation). This is found in western society.In collectivist societies, success is attributed to external factors whereas failure is attributed to internal factors.
17
Q
Define the Self-Serving Bias
A
This is the mechanism done to protect our self-esteem. Individualistic societies tend exhibit this bias more since success is attributed more to internal factors, whereas failure is attributed more to external factors. Internal factors are not considered as much to protect self-esteem.
18
Q
Compare and contrast microsociology and macrosociology.
A
Macrosociology is the big picture interactions between social structures versus microsociology describes the interaction between individuals or a group of individuals. Functionalism and Conflict Theory are macrosociological perspective whereas Symbolic Interactionism is a microsociological perspective.
19
Q
What are manifest and latent functions?
A
Manifest functions are expected positive manifestations and consequences; the expected result of a lesson. Latent functions are unexpected positive consequences of a lesson.
20
Q
Define social institutions and provide examples.
A
They are constants in society that rely on every individuals’ participation to exist and are not reliant on one individual; for example, laws, education, family, religion, and the health care systems.
21
Q
What is the hidden curriculum in educational institutions?
A
These are lessons not explicitly taught in school that help develop social norms. For example, waiting in line, waiting your turn, treating everybody with respect, etc. This could even include negative aspects of society, like gender oppression, etc.
22
Q
What is medicalization and demedicalization?
A
Medicalization is the treatment of human conditions (sadness, pregnancy) as medical conditions, which can often lead to overdiagnosis. In contrast, demedicalization is the process by which a condition/illness is no longer defined medically as such (homosexuality). It is a subset of symbolic interactionism.
23
Q
Define Functionalism.
A
A macrosociological view by Emile Durkheim. Examines the necessary structures that define society and the functions that exist to keep these structures balanced - in equilibrium. Social facts balanced with institutions, and how social structures interact with one another to keep society running. This theory focuses on the institution without considering the individuals that makeup that society. Considers that population growth leads to specialization, which leads dependency and interdependency; thus creating a stable social state. However, it doesn’t consider the societal changes/upheavals.
24
Q
Define Conflict Theory.
A
A macrosociological view by Karl Marx. It seeks to describe unequal access to resources and social tension that leads to that unequality, which leads to conflict.There exists a thesis and antithesis, and the conflict between the two leads to the synthesis of a new social order. A new antithesis then forms with the emergence of this new thesis. However, this does not consider the stable times in society. Power differentials are created and these differentials contibute to maintenance of social order. How is society held together? How does society function? Consider this when there is a class struggle/conflict > what is the current thesis and what is the antithesis?
25
Define Social Constructionism (weak and strong).
A societal view by Berger and Luckman. What makes something real? Social constructionism sees knowledge and many aspects of the world around us as social constructs - not real and derived by us. For example, laws, nations, and money. The self can also be a social construct; how we view ourselves and our interactions with other people. Weak social constructionism looks at brute facts and institutional facts. Brute facts are fundamental facts that cannot be explained by other facts. It just is. Whereas institutional facts are socially constructed. Strong social constructionism does not consider brute facts. Reality is based on the humanity's constructs - defined by speech and actions.
26
Define Symbolic Interactionism.
A microsociological view by George Herbert Mead. Explains social order and change, and that the development of the individual is a social process. Humans communicate through words, gestures, and other symbols in which we attach meaning. (thumbs up, nod, hands up, etc.). Individuals put meaning to things to decide how to act.There are three tenants: 1. Action depends on the meaning we give to the object we are interacting with. 2. Different individuals have different meaning to the same object; thus different actions. 3. An individuals' given meaning can change over time. Therefore, a change in the individual > change in society.
27
What are the four parts of Feminist Theory?
1. Gender differences - assignment of gender roles. 2.Gender inequality - social biases. 3. Gender oppression - socio-economic pressure. 4. Structural oppression - woman have a passive role in society
28
Define the Rational Choice Theory.
Everything that people do is rational and the choice made by everyone is done rationally to maximize personal gain. The 3 assumptionsmade: 1. Completeness - every action can be ranked in rational order. 2. Transitivity - A is preferable to B, which is preferable to C. 3. Independence of irrelevant alternatives - a new alternative does not change the rankings/transitivity. Considers microsociological interactions between individuals leading to changes in society.
29
Define the Exchange Theory.
It is the application of the Rational Choice Theory in social interactions. If an individual selects the most rational choice, it is done so because this choice offers the best exchange/maximized profit. A choice is often done because it leads to an increase in approval via by recognition, reward, etc. However, the return on these choices decreases overtime and overuse of the choice. However, individuals are different. Your choice is of your self-interest; therefore, exchange theory believes that social interactions change over time.
30
Define the following as it pertains to social groups. Aggregate, Category, Primary, and Secondary
Aggregate - a collection of individuals without a purpose or commonality. Category - similar characteristics but no sense of belonging. Primary - friends and family. Secondary - sports teams, unions, clubs.
31
Define Activity Theory.
Activity theory is concerned with the replacement of certain jobs and activities, lost due to an aging population.
32
Define Disengagement Theory.
Disengagement theory examines the self-reflection that occurs as one ages and how aging causes a separation of society. The elderly disengages from society with aging.
33
Define Continuity Theory.
Continuity theory attempts to understand the choices one makes to maintain consistency in social roles as one ages. Elderly aim to keep the same roles/activities they had before retirement.
34
Define Age Stratification Theory.
Age stratification theory describes how the age of a generation regulates that generation’s behavior.
35
What is Race, Ethnicity, and Culture?
Race - socially-defined physical characteristics (skin colour). Ethnicity - socially-defined based on preferences like language, religion, nationality, and history. Culture - social behaviours and norms in human societies
36
What are the five main considerations of sex and gender?
Sex - biological - male, female, or intersex. Social construct: Gender Identity - how one identifies themselves; Gender Expression - how one expresses themselves; Sexual orientation: Gender Attraction - attracted to; Gender Fornication - has sex with
37
What is the difference between rural, urban, suburban, and exurban?
Rural - Less than 1000 people/sq.mile or 2500 residents. Urban - At least 1000 people/sq.mile. Suburban - outside urban centre, not rural space, but access to urban resources. Exurban - affluent suburban neighbourhoods.
38
Population Dynamics Theory
Dependent on fertility, mortality, and migration. Positive population growth - high birth rate, low mortality rate, high immigration, and low emigration. Negative population growth - low birth rate, high mortality rate, low immigration, and high emigration.
39
Demographic Transition Theory
Stage 1. High birth rate, high mortality rate, stable population growth. Stage 2. Mid birth rate, mid mortality rate, positive population growth. Developing countries. Stage 3. Lowering birth and mortality rate leading to a slower population growth. Think urbanization/industrialization. As resources increase, more options for growth as individuals. Birth control, less time for children, etc. Stage 4. Stabilization of population growth due to low birth and mortality rate. Stage 5. Uncertainty - either Malthusian Theorem where we runt out of resources leading to population stability or a deep decline in birth and mortality rate (rise in life expectancy).
40
World Systems Theory of Globalization
There are core, peripheral, and semi-peripheral countries. Core countries - strong central gov't, independent and diversified economy; Peripheral countries - weak central gov't and dependent on Core countries, and one economic activity (ie. extracting raw materials); Semi-peripheral countries - not dominant in trade, can develop from core and periphery countries, and a growing middle class.
41
Modernization Theory of Globalization
Countries develop naturally from traditional society to modern society. Assumes that trades can help modernization.
42
Dependency Theory of Globalization
Reaction to modernization. Periphery countries are poor because they have been integrated into a world system. They will continue to be poor since there is no opportunity for development (forever dependent).
43
Hyperglobalist View of Globalization
Globalization is a legitimate process where countries become interdependent leading to one global society
44
Skepticalist View of Globalization
Globalization is regionalized leading towards inequality around the world as periphery countries not integrated with the same benefits as core countries
45
Transformationalist View of Globalization
Transformationalists and postmodernists agree that the impact of globalization has been exaggerated by globalists but argue that it is foolish to reject the concept out of hand. This theoretical position argues that globalization should be understood as a complex set of interconnecting relationships through which power, for the most part, is exercised indirectly. They suggest that the globalization process can be reversed, especially where it is negative or, at the very least, that it can be controlled.
46
Mass Society Theory of Social Movement
Skeptical in the motivation of those involved in social movements (irrational, disorganized). People only join because they wanted to belong to a group (need for involvement). Examples include Nazism and Communism in the 1920's-30's.
47
Relative Deprivation Theory of Social Movement
Repressed and deprived rights of indviduals leads to response due to inequality. The conventional method to gain equality is useless (ingrained in society). The feeling of deserving better, of feeling deprived. The feeling of legitimate deprivation. These lack of resources does not necessarily equate to a social movement.
48
Resource Mobilization Approach of Social Movement
Social movements are dependent on having the leadership, the resources, and the organization to form and make change.
49
What is society and culture?
Society is how people are organized/structured. These people share a common culture. Culture is the rules that guide society (knowledge, beliefs, values, laws). Culture -1. People share a culture is society. 2. Culture is adaptive. 3. Culture builds on itself. 4. Culture is transmitted.
50
Define subculture
Culture at the medium-level of society that distinguishes itself from the larger society (Little Italy, Chinatown). Within the societal values.
51
Define microculture
A small segment of one's life (girl guides, sports team)
52
Define counterculture
Strongly disagrees with the value of society (cults, Amish)
53
Define culture lag
Culture takes time to adapt and therefore there is a lag in society. Symbolic culture lags behind material culture.
54
Define culture shock
Differences in culture leading to difficulty in adapting in society
55
Define culture diffusion
Spread of invention or discovery from one society to another
56
Define gatekeeping
Small number of groups or corporations presents information that defines the dominant ideology leading to societal expectations
57
What determines socio-economic status?
Ascribed and/or achieved factors. Ascribed fators are physical and external characteristics whereas achieve factors are acquired through efforts such as hard work or merit
58
What is the relation between social capital and social cohesion?
Low social capital > low socio-economic standing > social inequality > low social cohesion
59
What is the second sickness?
Second sickness (Waitzkin) is the excacerbation of health outcomes due to social inequality and injustice. As a result, higher-income groups have longer life expectancies than lower-income groups.
60
Why are women more likely to have better health profiles than men?
Women typically have longer life expectancies and an overall better health profile in comparison to men. This can be attributed to both bilogical and sociological causes: women are less likely to have life-threatening conditions (but they do have higher morbidity rates) and are more likely to seek care and utilize healthcare services.
61
What is anomie and Strain Theory?
Anomie is a state of normlessness. Anomic conditions erode social solidarity by means of excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation >> leading to deviance (Strain Theory).
62
What is spatial inequality?
A form of social stratification across territories and their populations. Urban areas > more diverse economic opportunities and more ability for social mobility.
63
What is the difference between incidence and prevalence?
Incidence is the occurrence rate of the disease in the at risk population per given time period. Prevalence is the presence of the disease in the population per given time period.
64
What is the difference between morbidity and mortality?
Morbidity is the burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease and mortality is the deaths caused by the given disease.
65
What are the four key tenents of American medical ethics and their meaning?
Beneficence - Act in the patient's best interest. Nonmaleficence - Do no harm (Harm > Benefit). Respect for autonomy - Respect patient's decisions and choices about health care. Justice - Treat similar patients with similar care.
66
What is the difference between material and symbolic culture?
Material culture is the artifacts associated with a group whereas symbolic culture focuses on the ideas, values, and principles of the group.
67
What is the difference between value and belief?
Value is what a person deems important whereas belief is what a person deems to be true.
68
What is the difference between race and ethnicity?
Race is the phenotypic differences between groups of people whereas ethnicity is based on common laguage, religion, nationality, and other cultural factors.
69
What is the difference between fertility and birth rate?
Fertility rate is the average number of children a woman has during her lifetime in a population whereas the birth rate is the number of births in a population per unit time.
70
What is the difference between proactive and reactive social movements?
Proactive promote change in society whereas reactive movements resist change in society.
71
What is culture?
The lifestyle of a group of people and includes both material and symbolic elements.
72
What is the Kinsey Scale?
Sexuality scale (0-hetero, 3-bisexual, 6-homo)
73
What is the crude rate?
The total rate of population growth.
74
What is symbolic ethnicity?
Specific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important even when the identity does not play a role in everyday life. See - St. Patrick's Day, Oktoberfest, etc.
75
What are factors involved in Interpersonal Attraction?
Similarity; Self-disclosure (sharing one's fears, thoughts, and goals, and being met with non-judgmental empathy); Reciprocal liking (people like others better when they believe the other person likes them); and Proximity (just being physically close to someone plays a factor - mere exposure effect or familiarity effect).
76
What is aggression and what part of the brain controls it?
Aggression is behavior through physical, verbal, or non-verbal actions that intends to cause harm or increase social dominance. Most are settled by threat and withdrawal without actual bodily harm. The amygdala is responsible for response to stimuli; thus is responsible for aggression. The prefrontal cortex can place brakes on the amygdala however. It is in charge of reducing emotional reactivity and impulsiveness. High testosterone level also is linked to more aggressive behavior.
77
What is the cognitive neoassociation model?
We are more likely to respond to others aggresively whenever we are feeling negative emotions, such as fatigue, pain, and frustration.
78
What are the four main types of attachment styles?
SAAD. Secure (consistent caregiver, predictable child behavior); Avoidant (indifferent caregiver, child has no preference between caregiver or stranger); Ambivalent (inconsistent caregiver, anxious child); Disorganized (abusive, neglective caregiver; inconsistent response from child)
79
What are the different types of social support?
Emotional, Esteem, Material, Informational, and Network
80
Hunger and foraging is controlled by what part of the brain?
Hypothalamus. Lateral hypothalamus controls hunger. Ventromedial hypothalamus controls satiety.
81
What is the difference between polygyny, polyandry, and promiscuity?
Polygyny (1 male, multiple females); Polyandry (1 female , multiple males); Promiscuity refers to a member of one sex mating with any member of the opposite sex WITHOUT exclusivity.
82
Mate bias may carry direct or indirect benefits. Explain.
Direct benefits include providing material advantages, protection, and emotional support whereas indirect benefits promote better survival in the offspring (self-sacrifice, etc.)
83
What are the five recognized mechanisms of mate choice?
Phenotypic benefits (observable traits that make a potential mate more attractive); Sensory bias (development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population; for example male crabs building pillars around their territory to attract mates); Fisherian or Runaway bias (a positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait that has no effect on survival becomes more exaggerated over time; for example, Peacock feathers); Indicator traits (signifies overall good health and well being of the mate; for example, shiny coats in cats); Genetic compatibility (creation of mate pairs that have complementary genetics)
84
What is the Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis?
One individual helps another person when he or she feels empathy for the other person, regardless of the cost.
85
What is the concept of the Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS)?
Natural selection will prevent alternative strategies from arising. The strategies are thus inherited traits passed along with the population, with the object of the game being becoming more fit than competitors.
86
Define Altruism, Cooperation, Spite, and Selfishness
Altruism (bad for donor, good for recipient); Cooperation (good for donor and recipient); Spite (bad for donor and recipient); Selfishness (good for donor, bad for recipient)
87
What is Inclusive Fitness?
Measure of an organism's success in the population based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of the offspring to support others. For example, protecting the offspring of the group at large. Promotes the idea that altruistic behavior can improve the fitness and success of a species as a whole.
88
What are the three components of social perception?
Tools to make judgments and impressions regarding people. There is the perceiver (influenced by experience, motives, and emotional state), the target, and the situation
89
What is the Primary Effect?
First impressions are more impactful than subsequent impressions.
90
What is the Recency Effect?
Most recent information about the individual is the most important at forming our impressions.
91
What is the Reliance on Central Traits?
Organization of the target's traits and personal characteristics most relevant to the perceiver.
92
What is Implicit Personality Theory?
There are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behaviour are related.
93
What is the Halo Effect?
Cognitive bias in which judgments about a specific aspect of an individual can be affected by one's overall impression of the individual.
94
What is the Just-World Hypothesis?
Good things happen to good people, and bad to bad. Consequences may be attributed to a universal restoring force (karma).
95
What is Self-Serving Bias?
Also known as self-serving attributional bias. Individuals will view their own success based on internal factors, while viewing failures based on external factors.
96
What is Self-Enhancement?
The need to maintain self-worth and can be done through internal attribution of successes and external attribution of failures.
97
What is Attribution Theory? Who founded it?
Frtiz Heider. Focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer causes of other people's behavior.
98
What are the two main categories of attribution theory?
Dispositional (depends on internal factors) and situational (external factors).
99
What are the three types of behavioural cues?
Consistency (consistent behaviour of a person over time); Consensus (how a person's behaviour differs from others); Distinctiveness (extent in which a person engages in similar behaviour across a series of scenarios).
100
What is the Correspondent Inference Theory?
Focusing on the intentionality of others' behaviour. Tendency to explain the behavior by dispositional attribution.
101
What is the Fundamental Attribution Error?
We generally blame a person's behavior/action on dispositional rather than situational factors in negative contexts.
102
What is Attribute Substitution?
When individuals must make judgments that are complex, but instead substitute a simpler solution or apply a heuristic.
103
What is a Stereotype?
They refer to the expectations, impressions, and opinions (positive or negative) about the characteristics of members of a group.
104
What is Prejudice?
Reflects the overall attitude (positive or negative) and emotional response to a group.
105
What is Discrimination?
Refers to the differences in behavior/actions toward a different group.
106
What are the classifications of stereotypes? PACE
Paternalistic (group is looked down upon); Conteptuous (group viewed with resentment/annoyance); Envious (group is viewed with jealousy/distrust); Admiration (group is viewed with pride)
107
What is Stereotype Threat?
People being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group.
108
What social factors influence prejudice?
Power, Class, and Prestige.
109
What is Ethnocentrism?
Practice of making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own cultures.
110
What is Cultural Relativism?
Perception of another culture as different from one's own but with the recognition that the cultural values, mores, and rules of a culture fit into that culture itself.
111
What is social status; ascribed, achieved, and master?
Positions in society that are used to classify individuals. Ascribed is given involuntarily (race, ethnicity, gender). Achieved is earned through one's efforts or choices. Master is the status by which a person is most identified.
112
What is a role; role performance, role partner, and role set?
A set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms that define a status. Role performance is carrying out the role. Role partner is the person whom one is interacting with. Role set is the various roles associated with a status.
113
What is role conflict, role strain, and role exit?
Role conflict is the difficulty maintaing the responsibilities of all the different roles an individual has. Role strain is difficulty satisfying the responsibilities of one role. Role exit dropping one identity for another.
114
What is a group; primary, secondary, in-, out-, and reference?
Primary group are close, intimate with personal relationships (friends and family). Secondary groups are superficial interactions (co-workers, teammates, etc.). In-groups are groups which individuals belong and identify as (club, army, etc.). Out-groups is who the individual opposes/competes (liberals v. conservatives, etc.). Reference group is who an individual evaluates him/herself against.
115
What is Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft?
Gemeinschaft is community - unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography (families and neighborhoods). Gesellschaft is society - mutual self-interests working together towards the same goal (companies and countries).
116
What is Interaction Process Analysis and System for Multiple Level Observation of Groups? What are the fundamental levels of interactions? (3-types)
Techniques for observing, classifying, and measuring the interactions within small groups. SYMLOG updates IPA by suggesting that there are three fundamental levels of interactions: dominance v. submission, friendliness v. unfriendliness, and instrumentally-controlled v. emotionally-expressive
117
What are organizations; formal organizations?
Entities that are set-up to achieve specific goals and having structure and culture. Formal organizations are different in many ways - they continue despite departure of an individual member; they have expressed goals; seek control the activities of their members; and hierarchical.
118
What is a bureacracy? What are the six characteristics?
Rational system of political organization, administration, discipline, and control. Six characteristics: paid non elected officials, make career out of holding office; regular salary increases, seniority rights, and promotions; officials hold advanced degrees and training; rigidly defined work procedures; responsbility for meeting demands of position.
119
Iron Law of Oligarchy?
Democractic and bureacratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group. >> powers centralized in the hands of a few key leaders.
120
What is McDonaldization?
Used to refer to a shift in focus towards efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in societies.
121
What is self-presentation/impression management?
Displaying oneself to society through culturally accepted behaviors
122
What is the Basic Model of Emotional Expression, Appraisal Model, and Social Construction Model?
Emotional expression models. Basic Model - emotional expressions are consistent with his theories of evolution and should be similar across cultures (universally recognized facial expressions). Appraisal Model - there are biologically predetermined expressions but that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression. Social Construction Model - no biological basis for emotion and are instead based on experiences and situational context alone. One must be familiar with social norms for a certain emotion to perform.
123
What is the authentic, ideal, and tactical self?
Authentic self is who the person actually is (positive and negative). Ideal self is who we aspire to be under optimal circumstances. Tactical self (ought self) is who we market ourselves to be when we adhere others' expectations about us.
124
Impression Management Strategy? AAIMS.
Altercasting - imposing an identity onto another person. Aligning actions - making questionable behaviour acceptable through excuses. Ingratiation - using flattery or conforming to expectations to win someone over. Managing experiences - create positive image about who we are. Self-disclosure - giving information about oneself.
125
What is Goffman's Dramaturgical Approach?
Metaphor of a theatrical performance to describe how individuals create self images of themselves in various situations.
126
What is the front stage and back stage?
Front stage is where the actor is in front of the audienceand performs according to the setting and script. Back stage is where the actor is not being observed by an audience. He is free to act in ways that may not be congruent with his desired public image.
127
Verbal v. Non-verbal Communication.
Verbal is transmission of information via words spoken, writen, or signed. Non-verbal is HOW it is communicated, intentionally or unintentionally, without words.
128
What is difference between social action and social interaction?
Social action considers just the individual that is surrounded by others. Social interaction explores the ways in which two or more individual's can shape each other's behaviour.
129
What is Social Facilitation?
Tendency for people to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others. Also hinders the performance of less familiar tasks (complex tasks).
130
What is Deindividuation?
When individuals are in a group setting, the anonymity causes a loss of individual identity. This also leads to antinormative behaviour >> acting in a manner that is inconsistent with his normal self.
131
What is the Bystander Effect?
Individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are present. More people leads to diffusion of responsibility.
132
What is Social Loafing?
Tendency for indviduals to put in less effort in a group setting than individually.
133
What is Peer Pressure?
Social influence placed on an individual by a group of people or another individual.
134
What is Identity Shift and Cognitive Dissonance?
Identity shift effect is when an individual's state of harmony is disrupted with social rejection leading to conformation with the norms of a group >> avoid internal conflict >> adapt ideas of the group. Cognitive dissonance is the simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions leading to an internal state of discomfort.
135
What was Solomon Asch's Conformity Experiment?
Individual who made observations in presence of confederates. See if individual's behaviour was influenced by others. Individual was shown 2 cards and asked to say aloud which card matches the first card. Showed that real participants answered incorrectly up to 1/3 of the time since the individual will sometimes provide answers they known untrue to avoid going against the group >>>> Urge to conformity could outweigh desire to provide correct answer.
136
What is Group Polarization?
Tendency of the group to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members in the group. There is a tendency to make riskier (risky shift) or too cautious decisions (choice shift).
137
What is Groupthink?
Social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision. Factors include: illusion of invulnerability, collective rationalization, illusion of morality, excessive stereotyping, pressure for conformity, self-censorship, illusion of unanimity, mindguards
138
Assimilation v. Multiculturalism
Assimilation leads to the integration of new aspects of society and culture with old ones, transforming the culture. A blend/melting pot. Whereas, multiculturalism is a mosaic of different culture (encourages, respects, and celebrates cultural differences).
139
What is the meaning of cultural transmission/learning and cultural diffusion?
Cultural transmission is how society socializes its members/teaches them about culture. Cultural diffusion is the spread of norms, customs, and beliefs throughout the culture/world.
140
Define Resocialization, Primary, Secondary, and Anticipatory Socialization.
Primary socialization happens during childhood and with immediate family members within the household. It sets the foundation for learning. Secondary socialization happens during adolescence and outside the home. It occurs in schools, clubs, sports teams, etc. and with other people. This leads to refinments and minor changes to behaviour. Finally, Anticipatory Socialization is the process by which a person prepares him/herself to future changes in occupation, living situations, or relationships. Resocialization is the process by which one discards old behaviours for new ones to make a life change.
141
Define social norms, mores, and folkways.
Social norms are societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behaviour. It is a type of social control. Mores are widely observed social norms (no drug use, no breaking the law, etc. RIGHT v. WRONG). Folkways are norms that refer to behaviour that is considered polite in particular social interactions such as shaking hands or knocking before entering (RIGHT v. RUDE). Violation example - Think of arriving at a formal party with no tie (folkway) or wearing only a tie (more).
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What is Conformity?
Conformity is matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours to societal norms (that of the rgroup). Also known as majority influence.
143
What is Internalization and Identification as it relates to conformity?
Internalization is changing one's behaviours and beliefs to that of the group and internalizing that process with one's behaviours and beliefs. Identification is changing one's behaviours to that of the group but not internalizing it (not personally taking on the ideas).
144
What is Compliance?
Compliance is changing one's behaviour based on a direct request by someone that has no power or authority to command the individual. Peer pressure?
145
Define these compliance techniques: foot-in-the-door, door-in-the-face, lowball, and that's-not-all techniques.
Foot-in-the-door - small requests to bigger requests to ask for compliance. Door-in-the-face - large request > smaller request. Often, it is the last, small request that was the true request. Lowball - gain the commitment of someone, then raise the cost of that commitment. That's-not-all - individual is made an offer but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than expected (for example, infomercial).
146
What is Obedience?
Changing one's behaviour in response to a direct order from an authority figure. People are more likely to obey than comply due to the real or perceived social power of the individual.
147
What was the Stanley Milgram experiment as it relates to obedience?
Shock experiment. Shown that more than 60% of people will obey even if they do not wish to continue.
148
What are the primary components of attitude?
Affective, Behaviour, Cognitive. Affective refers to the way a person feels; Behavioural refers to the way a person acts; Cognititive refers to the way a person thinks.
149
What is the Functional Attitude Theory? What are its components?
Attitude serves four functions: Knowledge, Ego-expressive, Ego-defensive, Adaptive. Knowledge provides the consistency and stability. Ego-expressive allows us to communicate and solidy our self-identity. Adaptive is the idea that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed. Ego-defensive protects our self-esteem or justifies actions that we know are wrong.
150
What is Learning Theory?
Attitudes are developed through different forms of learning: direct contact, direct instruction, direct interaction, and conditioning
151
What is the elaboration likelihood model; central route processing and peripheral route processing?
How individuals process persuasive information. Central route - think deeply about information and scrutinize its meaning and purpose. Peripheral route - do not elaborate but focus on superficial details (delivery of information).
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What is the social cognitive theory and Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation?
Postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviours of others (direct observation and replication) and influenced by the environment. The three factors are not independent and influence each other. For example, work ethic of the employees (behaviour) affected by how hard their colleagues work and their attitudes towards hard work (personal) and the systems and infrastructure of the company (environment).
