Sociology Flashcards - Sheet1
MCAT Kaplan Sociology
Define Culture of Poverty
Attempts to explain the cycle of poverty. The poor not only lack resources but also acquire a poverty-perpetuating system where they are resigned to their socio-economic position.
The “Double Jeopardy” or “Triple Jeopardy” hypotheses is best demonstrated by what social inequality concept? Define this concept.
Intersectionality (Crenshaw). There are different kinds of discrimination and we have to consider the overlapping of these different kinds of discrimination in social inequality situations. These individuals are often at higher mental risk. For example, an African-American female who is also Muslim.
What is the structuralist perspective when it comes to social inequality?
One looks at societal structures/institutions when implementing changes to affect social inequality. For example, educational training and opportunities to all social groups to improve social inequality.
What is the “broken windows hypothesis”?
It is the normalization and signaling effect of social disorder and vandalism leading to the exacerbation of other crimes. This means that monitoring/preventing small crimes, like vandalism, will deter more serious crimes from happening and help creates an atmosphere of order.
What is social disorganization theory?
Conditions of a neighbourhood shapes the likelihood that a person in that environment will participate in crime. Environment includes poverty levels, ethnic heterogeneity, and ecological factors.
What is alienation of labour?
Marx - factory workers lose their ability to determine their destinies and the ability to own the goods they produce
What are formal and informal control mechanisms?
Tools for crime prevention. Formal - police and laws. Informal - family, neighbours, and friends
Define the three different types of social system constructs as they relate to social mobility and stability.
Caste System - Low social mobility and high social stability. Class System - Mid social mobility and mid social stability. Meritocracy - High social mobility and low social stability.
What is Absolute and Relative Poverty?
Absolute Poverty is the same for everyone in the world. It is what is minimally required for survival (water, food, shelter) whereas Relative Poverty depends on society. This is often higher than Absolute Poverty and rises with the resources of the country where it’s derived from. It is the exclusion of individuals from society due to the socio-economic gap that allows for access to education and health care. Relative Poverty is also dependent on the area - so you can live in Relative Poverty even if you live in an affluent area. It depends on the overall SES of the people around you.
What is Social Reproduction?
The socio-economic standing of the parent is transferred to the child. The higher financial (money/education), social (networks), and cultural (foreign exposure, art appreciation, language) capital of the parents leads to success and similar financial, social, and cultural capital of the offsprings.
What is Social Exclusion?
Removal from the core of society via poverty, mental/physical health, discrimination, and lack of education/housing/jobs.
What is Environmental Justice?
Fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens across society. Those with lower SES tend to have more more environment hazards and less access to amenities due to low social and political power.
What are two types of segregation?
Concentration - clustering in a certain region.Centralization - clustering in the central area.
Define Class and False Consciousness
Class consciousness is solidarity and knowledge of people in their own class; the realization of the struggle and the means for improvement. False consciousness it the inability to see exploitation and oppression of the common class due to the promotion of workers, etc. Workers take on the same interest as the factory owners.
Define Actor/Observer Bias
Fundamental Attribution Error v. How We View Our Own Behavior and Actions. We lean more towards external factors when it comes to judging ourselves rather than internal factors.
How is success and failure observed in individualistic and collectivist societies?
In individualistic societies, success is over-attributed to internal factors (disposition) whereas failure is attributed to external/situational factors (situation). This is found in western society.In collectivist societies, success is attributed to external factors whereas failure is attributed to internal factors.
Define the Self-Serving Bias
This is the mechanism done to protect our self-esteem. Individualistic societies tend exhibit this bias more since success is attributed more to internal factors, whereas failure is attributed more to external factors. Internal factors are not considered as much to protect self-esteem.
Compare and contrast microsociology and macrosociology.
Macrosociology is the big picture interactions between social structures versus microsociology describes the interaction between individuals or a group of individuals. Functionalism and Conflict Theory are macrosociological perspective whereas Symbolic Interactionism is a microsociological perspective.
What are manifest and latent functions?
Manifest functions are expected positive manifestations and consequences; the expected result of a lesson. Latent functions are unexpected positive consequences of a lesson.
Define social institutions and provide examples.
They are constants in society that rely on every individuals’ participation to exist and are not reliant on one individual; for example, laws, education, family, religion, and the health care systems.
What is the hidden curriculum in educational institutions?
These are lessons not explicitly taught in school that help develop social norms. For example, waiting in line, waiting your turn, treating everybody with respect, etc. This could even include negative aspects of society, like gender oppression, etc.
What is medicalization and demedicalization?
Medicalization is the treatment of human conditions (sadness, pregnancy) as medical conditions, which can often lead to overdiagnosis. In contrast, demedicalization is the process by which a condition/illness is no longer defined medically as such (homosexuality). It is a subset of symbolic interactionism.
Define Functionalism.
A macrosociological view by Emile Durkheim. Examines the necessary structures that define society and the functions that exist to keep these structures balanced - in equilibrium. Social facts balanced with institutions, and how social structures interact with one another to keep society running. This theory focuses on the institution without considering the individuals that makeup that society. Considers that population growth leads to specialization, which leads dependency and interdependency; thus creating a stable social state. However, it doesn’t consider the societal changes/upheavals.
Define Conflict Theory.
A macrosociological view by Karl Marx. It seeks to describe unequal access to resources and social tension that leads to that unequality, which leads to conflict.There exists a thesis and antithesis, and the conflict between the two leads to the synthesis of a new social order. A new antithesis then forms with the emergence of this new thesis. However, this does not consider the stable times in society. Power differentials are created and these differentials contibute to maintenance of social order. How is society held together? How does society function? Consider this when there is a class struggle/conflict > what is the current thesis and what is the antithesis?
Define Social Constructionism (weak and strong).
A societal view by Berger and Luckman. What makes something real? Social constructionism sees knowledge and many aspects of the world around us as social constructs - not real and derived by us. For example, laws, nations, and money. The self can also be a social construct; how we view ourselves and our interactions with other people. Weak social constructionism looks at brute facts and institutional facts. Brute facts are fundamental facts that cannot be explained by other facts. It just is. Whereas institutional facts are socially constructed. Strong social constructionism does not consider brute facts. Reality is based on the humanity’s constructs - defined by speech and actions.
Define Symbolic Interactionism.
A microsociological view by George Herbert Mead. Explains social order and change, and that the development of the individual is a social process. Humans communicate through words, gestures, and other symbols in which we attach meaning. (thumbs up, nod, hands up, etc.). Individuals put meaning to things to decide how to act.There are three tenants: 1. Action depends on the meaning we give to the object we are interacting with. 2. Different individuals have different meaning to the same object; thus different actions. 3. An individuals’ given meaning can change over time. Therefore, a change in the individual > change in society.
What are the four parts of Feminist Theory?
- Gender differences - assignment of gender roles. 2.Gender inequality - social biases. 3. Gender oppression - socio-economic pressure. 4. Structural oppression - woman have a passive role in society
Define the Rational Choice Theory.
Everything that people do is rational and the choice made by everyone is done rationally to maximize personal gain. The 3 assumptionsmade: 1. Completeness - every action can be ranked in rational order. 2. Transitivity - A is preferable to B, which is preferable to C. 3. Independence of irrelevant alternatives - a new alternative does not change the rankings/transitivity. Considers microsociological interactions between individuals leading to changes in society.
Define the Exchange Theory.
It is the application of the Rational Choice Theory in social interactions. If an individual selects the most rational choice, it is done so because this choice offers the best exchange/maximized profit. A choice is often done because it leads to an increase in approval via by recognition, reward, etc. However, the return on these choices decreases overtime and overuse of the choice. However, individuals are different. Your choice is of your self-interest; therefore, exchange theory believes that social interactions change over time.
Define the following as it pertains to social groups. Aggregate, Category, Primary, and Secondary
Aggregate - a collection of individuals without a purpose or commonality. Category - similar characteristics but no sense of belonging. Primary - friends and family. Secondary - sports teams, unions, clubs.
Define Activity Theory.
Activity theory is concerned with the replacement of certain jobs and activities, lost due to an aging population.
Define Disengagement Theory.
Disengagement theory examines the self-reflection that occurs as one ages and how aging causes a separation of society. The elderly disengages from society with aging.
Define Continuity Theory.
Continuity theory attempts to understand the choices one makes to maintain consistency in social roles as one ages. Elderly aim to keep the same roles/activities they had before retirement.
Define Age Stratification Theory.
Age stratification theory describes how the age of a generation regulates that generation’s behavior.
What is Race, Ethnicity, and Culture?
Race - socially-defined physical characteristics (skin colour). Ethnicity - socially-defined based on preferences like language, religion, nationality, and history. Culture - social behaviours and norms in human societies
What are the five main considerations of sex and gender?
Sex - biological - male, female, or intersex. Social construct: Gender Identity - how one identifies themselves; Gender Expression - how one expresses themselves; Sexual orientation: Gender Attraction - attracted to; Gender Fornication - has sex with
What is the difference between rural, urban, suburban, and exurban?
Rural - Less than 1000 people/sq.mile or 2500 residents. Urban - At least 1000 people/sq.mile. Suburban - outside urban centre, not rural space, but access to urban resources. Exurban - affluent suburban neighbourhoods.
Population Dynamics Theory
Dependent on fertility, mortality, and migration. Positive population growth - high birth rate, low mortality rate, high immigration, and low emigration. Negative population growth - low birth rate, high mortality rate, low immigration, and high emigration.
Demographic Transition Theory
Stage 1. High birth rate, high mortality rate, stable population growth. Stage 2. Mid birth rate, mid mortality rate, positive population growth. Developing countries. Stage 3. Lowering birth and mortality rate leading to a slower population growth. Think urbanization/industrialization. As resources increase, more options for growth as individuals. Birth control, less time for children, etc. Stage 4. Stabilization of population growth due to low birth and mortality rate. Stage 5. Uncertainty - either Malthusian Theorem where we runt out of resources leading to population stability or a deep decline in birth and mortality rate (rise in life expectancy).
World Systems Theory of Globalization
There are core, peripheral, and semi-peripheral countries. Core countries - strong central gov’t, independent and diversified economy; Peripheral countries - weak central gov’t and dependent on Core countries, and one economic activity (ie. extracting raw materials); Semi-peripheral countries - not dominant in trade, can develop from core and periphery countries, and a growing middle class.
Modernization Theory of Globalization
Countries develop naturally from traditional society to modern society. Assumes that trades can help modernization.
Dependency Theory of Globalization
Reaction to modernization. Periphery countries are poor because they have been integrated into a world system. They will continue to be poor since there is no opportunity for development (forever dependent).
Hyperglobalist View of Globalization
Globalization is a legitimate process where countries become interdependent leading to one global society
Skepticalist View of Globalization
Globalization is regionalized leading towards inequality around the world as periphery countries not integrated with the same benefits as core countries
Transformationalist View of Globalization
Transformationalists and postmodernists agree that the impact of globalization has been exaggerated by globalists but argue that it is foolish to reject the concept out of hand. This theoretical position argues that globalization should be understood as a complex set of interconnecting relationships through which power, for the most part, is exercised indirectly. They suggest that the globalization process can be reversed, especially where it is negative or, at the very least, that it can be controlled.
Mass Society Theory of Social Movement
Skeptical in the motivation of those involved in social movements (irrational, disorganized). People only join because they wanted to belong to a group (need for involvement). Examples include Nazism and Communism in the 1920’s-30’s.
Relative Deprivation Theory of Social Movement
Repressed and deprived rights of indviduals leads to response due to inequality. The conventional method to gain equality is useless (ingrained in society). The feeling of deserving better, of feeling deprived. The feeling of legitimate deprivation. These lack of resources does not necessarily equate to a social movement.
Resource Mobilization Approach of Social Movement
Social movements are dependent on having the leadership, the resources, and the organization to form and make change.
What is society and culture?
Society is how people are organized/structured. These people share a common culture. Culture is the rules that guide society (knowledge, beliefs, values, laws). Culture -1. People share a culture is society. 2. Culture is adaptive. 3. Culture builds on itself. 4. Culture is transmitted.
Define subculture
Culture at the medium-level of society that distinguishes itself from the larger society (Little Italy, Chinatown). Within the societal values.
Define microculture
A small segment of one’s life (girl guides, sports team)
Define counterculture
Strongly disagrees with the value of society (cults, Amish)
Define culture lag
Culture takes time to adapt and therefore there is a lag in society. Symbolic culture lags behind material culture.
Define culture shock
Differences in culture leading to difficulty in adapting in society
Define culture diffusion
Spread of invention or discovery from one society to another
Define gatekeeping
Small number of groups or corporations presents information that defines the dominant ideology leading to societal expectations
What determines socio-economic status?
Ascribed and/or achieved factors. Ascribed fators are physical and external characteristics whereas achieve factors are acquired through efforts such as hard work or merit
What is the relation between social capital and social cohesion?
Low social capital > low socio-economic standing > social inequality > low social cohesion
What is the second sickness?
Second sickness (Waitzkin) is the excacerbation of health outcomes due to social inequality and injustice. As a result, higher-income groups have longer life expectancies than lower-income groups.
Why are women more likely to have better health profiles than men?
Women typically have longer life expectancies and an overall better health profile in comparison to men. This can be attributed to both bilogical and sociological causes: women are less likely to have life-threatening conditions (but they do have higher morbidity rates) and are more likely to seek care and utilize healthcare services.
