Sociology And Science

Question 1

Science as product of modernity

Answer 1

-Science was part of modernism

In modernity : explanations for events arising from actions of supernatural being displaced by rational scientific explanations based on empirical evidence

-Deciding whether particular understanding of world was true or not would be based on evidence and rational argument based on scientific method
-Application of rational principles + empirical evidence —> thought scientific method could contribute to our understanding + control of natural and social worlds

Question 2

Popper : Hypothetico-deductive method

Answer 2

-Drawing up a hypothesis based on previous research/observations to test .

1-Hypothesis formation
2-Falsificatjon
3-Emperocal evidence
4-Replication
5-Accumulation of evidence
6- Prediction
7-Theory formation
8-Scrutiny

Question 3

Poppers principle of falsification

Answer 3

-No hypothesis can be proven true
-Can be proven false : one observation to contrary can disprove it

‘White Swan’ to make point

-The more a hypothesis stands up to attempts the more likely it is to be ‘scientific truth’ (still only probability not fact)

-Much sociological theory isn’t scientific as can’t be falsified and will only become scientific when it produces testable and falsifiable hypothesis

Question 4

What is objectivity

Answer 4

Not distorted by value judgements and personal beliefs of scientist

3 main aspects
>Open mindedness + willingness to consider all possibilities and evidence
>Value freedom (keeping personal prejudices , opinions and values out of research process)
-Findings open to inspection + criticism by other researchers

Question 5

What is positivism

Answer 5

-View that logic , methods and procedures of natural sciences can be applied to study of society
-Human behaviour = response to external forces (agencies of socialisation)

Question 6

what does Comte say

Answer 6

-The application of natural science methodology to the study of society , based on empirical evidence and objectivity would produce a ‘positive science of society’

—> showing behaviour in social world = governed by laws of cause and effect in same way as behaviour of objects in natural world

Question 7

Marx - cause and effect theory

Answer 7

-theories of class struggle , revolution + transition to communism were based on cause + effect theories
established by the application of the scientific method to historical and contemp empirical data

-in keeping w/ modernist tradition + aims of natural , ‘science of society’ was seen as means to solving social problems , improving quality of human lives and making the world a better place

Question 8

Durkheim : Rules of sociological method

Answer 8

-Argued for positivist approach in sociology
-‘Consider social facts as things’
-Soc rarely produces results that are as precise + repeatable as those produced by natural scientists
-unable to control all variables
-Applying the procedures of natural sciences to study of society enables objective and value-free science of society

Question 9

Social facts definition

Answer 9

Social facts : Phenomena that exist outside individuals and independently of their minds , but which act upon them in ways in which constrain or mould their behaviour

Question 10

Social facts

Answer 10

-Aim of sociology should be study of the social facts
Examples : customs , belief systems , social institutions

Positivists : Society has reality external to individuals and social facts exercise constraint on and limit the options of individuals
SO individuals can’t do exactly as they Witsch without coming up against a whole range of social sanctions

Question 11

Main features of positivism in sociology (Soc should be a science -> made possible by following scientific approach using hypothetico-deductive method)

Answer 11

Positivist view consists of following features
1-Human behaviour response to observable social facts (explained w/ cause and effect relationships)
2-Direct observation + quantitative , statistical methods of data collection should be used to study society
3- focus on search for social causes of events in society (Durkheim study of suicide -> suggested causes of suicide were imbalances in degrees of soc intervention and moral regulation in society)
4-Study on social institutions + structures not individuals

Question 12

Fundamental differences between social world and natural world

Answer 12

1-Prediction (even with same circumstances , ppl will react differently)
2-Artificiality (Soc wants to study society in normal state)
3-Ethical issues (humans can object to lab testing)
4-Hawthorne effect (presence effects people’s behaviour)
5-Validity (ppl may distort or conceal truth)
6-Empirical observation (popper scientific hypothesis-not all social phenomena are quantifiable)

Question 13

What do interpetivists say

Answer 13

-Studying sociology in scientific way misinterprets the characteristics of society and human behaviour

Question 14

Why do interpretivists argue people don’t just respond to external forces

Answer 14

-They interpret and give meaning to a situation before responding

SO impossible to predict human behaviour or establish cause and effect through quantitative data

Question 15

How can we explain and understand human society ? (Interpretivists)

Answer 15

-Discovering and interpreting the meanings people give to situations

Question 16

Weber - Verstehen

Answer 16

-Process of understanding
-Recognition ppl give meaning to actions
-Researcher had to put themselves into positions of ppl who they’re trying to understand

Question 17

Interpretivists: Meanings do not exist independently of people

Answer 17

-social phenomena’s (suicide , crime , social crass) are not social facts
-They’re social constructions that have no reality outside the meaning given to them by people

Question 18

Realist view of science

Answer 18

Natural science is now limited to the observe

Question 19

Bhaskar (realist view of science)

Answer 19

-Not all phenomenal = capable of observation
-Can be underlying , Unobservable structures that cause events
-underlying structures both features of natural and social worlds

Question 20

Example / explanation of Underlying unobservable structures

Answer 20

-Many greatest scientific discoveries not only directly observed but indeeed from effects

Example : View Earth is round has been accepted view of science for hundreds of years but only physically observed in the 1960s

Sociology operated in same way —> can’t observe structures like social class or belief systems but we can discover them by their effects (large number of ppl sharing similar incomes)

Question 21

Example of Durkheim (even though a positivist) using underlying i observable structures

Answer 21

-Used the twin social f forces of social intervention and moral regulation to explain suicide though neither are observable

Question 22

•Sayer
•Keat and Urry
Open and closed systems
(Realists)

Answer 22

-Much natural scientific research takes place in open systems where factors can’t be controlled and prediction is more difficult and imprecise
-Example : weather forecasting

-‘sociology is unscientific’ —> based on mistaken view of what real natural scientific research is like
-both social and natural world study unobservable phenomena and both operate in open systems unable to control all potential causes

-Both positivists and interpretivists are using scientific approaches
-Sociology is a science !

Question 23

Social construction of scientific knowledge

Answer 23

-Scientific method + knowledge are produced within specific social context
-Created by actions and interpretations of scientists themselves and influences by wide range of social factors

Question 24

What’s a paradigm

Answer 24

-Framework of scientific laws , concepts , theories methods and assumptions within which scientists operate , and which provides guidelines for the conduct of research and what counts as proper evidence

Question 25

Kuhn - The influence of paradigms and ‘scientific revolutions’

Answer 25

-Scientists work within paradigms
-Not called into q until evidence against them overwhelming
-Coloured lenses thru which scientists look at
-Learnt by scientists in their training during which they are socialised into the accepted view of ‘normal science’
-Paradigm acts like blinkers which encourage scientists to try fit observations into it
-Only questioned when there are many anomalies does the paradigm change

-Scientific paradigms change radically only when series of discoveries cannot be explained by the dominant one (scientific crisis)

SO scientific method + knowledge = soc constructed products produced by a community of scientists in terms of agreed assumptions and methods

Question 26

Factors that contribute to social construction of scientific knowledge

Answer 26

-Time and money available to do research
-Desire for career pronation and career success
-How useful the research is seen to govs , priv conpanies + researchers
-Current state of knowledge and availability of existing data
-Pressured to publish and publishers deadlines
-Funding
-Desire for researchers to prove own hypothesis right + for experiences to succeed
-Values of researcher

Question 27

Postmodernism : 5 points

Answer 27

1-Science = metanarrative

2-Loss of faith that ‘rational thinking + application of scientific method can control and improve world (problems like climate change)

3-Soc research doesn’t provide factual description of social life (socially constructed by researchers)

4-Pointless trying to find social causes —> society fragmented into many diff grps —> seperate choice

Question 28

Summary : Positivist view

Answer 28

-Sociology should be a science + can be if it searchers for explanations by the study of social facts following as closely as possible the detached , objective , empirical and quantitative methods making up the scientific method found in natural science .

Question 29

Summary : Interpetivist view

Answer 29

-Sociology cannot be a science!
-due to the diff nature of the social world , the unpredictability of human behaviour + need to explore ppl subjective states of mind and the meanings they give to their actions

Question 30

Summary : Realist view

Answer 30

-Both positivists + interpetivists incorrect understanding of what science is
-Science = both observable empirical and hidden underlying structures
-Both positivism and interpretivists regarded as using scientific methods

Question 31

Summary : Social constructionists and post modernists

Answer 31

-What counts as science is produce of wide range of social influences
-Scientists often don’t live up to own criteria of ‘good science’
-No objective science or scientific method out there which is independent of the beliefs and activities of scientists themselves

Question 32

Sociology can be regarded as scientific as long as it strives to achieve the following five objectives

Answer 32

1.Value freedom
2. Objectivity
3. Use of systematic research methods to collect evidence
4.Careful analysis and evaluation of data and hypothesis on the light of evidence and logical argument (no personal opinions)
5. Findings open to inspection , criticism , debate and testing by other researchers