sociologists names

Question 1

Durkheim(functionalist)

Answer 1

Education system provides secondary socialisation by:
-instilling social solidarity
-teaching social rules and how to abide by them(limiting deviant behaviour)

education teaches universalistic values. mechanical and organic solidarity

Question 2

Durkheim evaluation

Answer 2

Outdated. Postmodernists argue contemporary society is diverse and multicultural, and schools do not produce a shared set of norms/values.

Hargreaves has argued the education system encourages individualism and competition rather than social solidarity and shared values. Educational norms discourage collaborative learning and instead encourage individuals to try and beat each other-opposite of social solidarity

Question 3

Davis and Moore(functionalist)

Answer 3

Education facilitates meritocracy- for society to function, there must be a system of unequal rewards(social stratification is essential).

Meritocracy works because of competition-the most important jobs need the most able and determined people and therefore require the most rewards as motivation.

Education system sifts and sorts people into their appropriate roles

Question 4

Davis and Moore evaluation

Answer 4

Marxist:
-myth of meritocracy
-not based on ability but on social class

Question 5

Althusser(Marxist)

Answer 5

The education system is part of the ‘ideological state apparatus’. The bourgeoisie maintain power by using:
-repressive state apparatus(coercive power)
-ideological state apparatus(institutions that spread bourgeois ideology and ensure that the proletariat are in a state of false class consciousness)

done via hidden curriculum and formal curriculum

Question 6

Althusser evaluation

Answer 6

Functionalist: Durkheim’s view that education serves to teach people the norms and values of society, to preserve the value consensus(positive intention)

Post Mod: Althusserian theory is deterministic; the fate of working-class pupils is not determined, and they have the power to change it.

Question 7

Bowles and Gintis(Marxist)

Answer 7

Correspondence principle:
-Hierarchy, rewards and sanctions, passive and docile, motivation, fragmentation
-reinforces the social class system by teaching w/c to be passive and accept their roles

Question 8

Bowles and Gintis evaluation

Answer 8

Outdated- research in 1976 and perhaps their findings are more applicable to when they were writing than they are to the present day. After all, the modern workplace is much less like the one described by Bowles and Gintis than the workplaces of the 1970s. Of course there are still factory jobs similar to those described, but a lot of jobs are very different.

pupils aren’t taught to be passive- made more aware of inequalities and exploitation through studying subjects like Sociology

Question 9

Bourdieu(Marxist)

Answer 9

Cultural capital gives power. Sometimes schools assess cultural capital rather than learning, and teachers perceive cultural capital as intelligence leading to positive labels being applied.

Question 10

Bourdieu Evaluation

Answer 10

Post Mod: Too deterministic. Assumes people have no real ability to make choices or have control over what happens to them, and they don’t really explain how and why many working-class children are actually successful in education

Question 11

Bernstein(Marxist)

Answer 11

teachers often have a middle-class habitus. Aspects of w/c habitus can be unconsciously associated with being less academic.

Language codes:elaborate and restricted code

overall, education system assesses children on the extent to which they have a m/c habitus rather than ability or merit

Question 12

Bernstein Evaluation

Answer 12

School teachers come from a wide range of backgrounds.

It is difficult to generalise about all w/c and m/c families, and there is likely to be a diversity of arrangements in the way language is used in families

Rosen argues Bernstein gives few examples to back up his claims of the existence of restricted and elaborated codes. He accuses Bernstein of creating a myth of the superiority of middle-class speech

Question 13

Heaton and Lawson(Feminist)

Answer 13

Hidden curriculum teaches patriarchal values and supports gender roles/stereotyping in schools e.g. girls are more likely to do catering

Question 14

Heaton and Lawson evaluation

Answer 14

-education is an increasingly female-dominated sector

-the education system is increasingly resulting in female success and male underperformance

-there are programmes in place which encourage girls to do more ‘masculine’ subjects- goes against stereotypes

Question 15

Hargreaves

Answer 15

distinguished three stages of labelling:
1. speculation(teachers make presumptions about the student based on appearance, conformity to discipline, personality, likeability and deviance
2. elaboration(each hypothesis is tested and either confirmed or contradicted, typing of each student is refined)
3. stabilisation(the teacher feels they know the student)

Question 16

Chubb and Moe(New Right)

Answer 16

Studied attainment of pupils from low income households using parental surveys, statistics and case studies. They found that state education is not meritocratic, as pupils from low-income households were less able to succeed.

Marketisation and privatisation creates competition between schools and this raises standards

Question 17

Chubb and Moe evaluation

Answer 17

Gewirtz and Ball both argue that competition between the schools mainly benefits the middle class, who can use their cultural and economic capital to gain access to more desirable schools.

Question 18

Douglas

Answer 18

1964 longitudinal study- Studied the impact of attainment at school and the underachievement of w/c pupils.

He identified that material factors(diet, health, housing) and cultural factors(values, attitudes, language) affected a child’s ability to achieve in school.
e.g. w/c parents place less value on education and as a result were less ambitious for their children and gave them less support/opportunities

Question 19

Sugarman

Answer 19

Argues that w/c subculture has four key features that act as a barrier to educational achievement:
1. Fatalism(the mentality that nothing could change their status)
2. Collectivism( the w/c valued being part of a group rather than achieving individually)
3. Immediate gratification (demanding rewards, rather than waiting for rewards of better quality
later)
4. Present-time orientation (WC individuals view the present as more important than the future)

Question 20

Sugarman evaluation

Answer 20

Functionalist theorists blame the working class parents for the underachievement of their children whereas these parents are really the victims of an unequal society in which schools are run by the middle classes for the middle classes.

Question 21

Elwood

Answer 21

Gender differences in achievement are shaped by six factors:
1. Equal opportunities policies
2. Positive role models
3. GCSE’s and Coursework
4. Teacher attention and classroom interaction
5. Challenging stereotypes
6. Selection and league tables

Question 22

Keddie(Interactionist)

Answer 22

Described cultural deprivation as a myth. She argued that a child cannot be deprived of their own culture. The working class fail because they are disadvantaged by the discrimination from the MC dominated education system. WC children are culturally different, not culturally deprived. Teachers measure students against the ideal pupil and this is typically a middle class student

Question 23

Rosenthal and Jacobson(Interactionist)

Answer 23

carried out a famous study on the subject of teacher labelling and its impact on pupils. Their findings supported the idea of a self-fulfilling prophecy, whereby if teachers labelled pupils as high-flyers or unusually gifted, their attainment came to reflect that label (and, theoretically, the opposite would also be true, with negative labels).

Question 24

Rosenthal and Jacobson evaluation

Answer 24

Because labelling theory is an Interactionist theory, there is no suggestion that a self-fulfilling prophecy is inevitable: people could also choose to reject the label.

Question 25

Ball(Interactionist)

Answer 25

Beachside comprehensive, 1981 examined the effect of setting and streaming on pupil performance.

Top stream students were warmed-up because they had higher expectations than those students in lower streams, who cooled-down due to lower expectations. Lower performing groups are more likely to have behavioural issues and a tendency to form anti-school subcultures.

Question 26

Mirza

Answer 26

Ethnographic approach to study 198 students between ages 15-19 combining observations, questionnaires, and follow-up postal questionnaires.
Teachers could be separated into 5 different categories:
1. Over racists
2. Christians
3. The crusaders
4. Black teachers
5. Liberal chauvinists

Found that teachers had limited impact on young black girls’ self-esteem BUT teachers attitudes negatively impacted on career aspirations.

Question 27

Mirza evaluation

Answer 27

Reactions to teacher racism are more likely to result in exclusion for black-Caribbean boys. Girls are more likely to retain the values of education but reject specific teachers that show hostility towards them.

Question 28

study that does NOT support self fulfilling prophecy

Answer 28

MIRZA- This is an interesting study that criticises the labelling theory of educational acheivement – the girls did not accept their negative labels from their teachers and had positive self-esteem.

Question 29

Driver and Ballard

Answer 29

Argued that Asian families have a much more ‘Pro-School’ attitude than black families; Asian parents also have higher aspirations for their children. Asian pupils whose first language was not English, did well in English compared to some of their peers.

Question 30

Archer and Francis

Answer 30

A high value is placed on education by Chinese parents, coupled with a strong cultural tradition for one’s elders.High educational aspiration transmits from parents to children, and students derive positive self-esteem from constructing themselves as good students

Question 31

Platt (Interactionist)

Answer 31

Children from ethnic minority backgrounds have less
ambitious’ job aspirations

Question 32

Platt evaluation

Answer 32

Chinese and Indian students actually achieve better than other ethnicities suggesting that they have more ambitious aspirations than others

Question 33

Sewell

Answer 33

Argues that a culture of hyper-masculinity ascribed to by some black boys is one of the main factors explaining the educational underachievement of black boys. Many black boys lack a father figure to act as a role model and provide discipline while they grow up, making this group vulnerable to peer pressure. Believe there is no institutional racism

Question 34

Sewell evaluation

Answer 34

Pilkington found that even though there were high levels of divorce
amongst African-Caribbean families (and low levels amongst Asian
families) – both groups had a higher level of students continuing their education post-16 compared to their White peers.

One might also criticise Sewell for stereotyping black culture. There really isn’t just one type of black culture, and it’s unlikely that an anti-school street culture was ever that strong among black boys, and less so today than 20 years ago.

Question 35

Gilborn and Youdell

Answer 35

Believed that teachers weren’t intentionally racist. They argued that schools triaged children into those who will achieve anyway (* A-C economy), hopeless cases and borderline cases who require attention and input. They linked this with pressure in schools to maintain their placement on league tables. This could be linked between education policy and processes within schools like labelling. Teachers and education are under-resourced and teachers place resources on those who are likely to achieve.

Question 36

Maffesoli

Answer 36

Used the terms ‘neo-tribes’ or ‘urban tribes’ to refer to ways in which groups of people come together in a shared interest. He saw this as a move away from individualism.

Question 37

Wilkinson

Answer 37

Greater levels of inequality are positively correlated with higher rates of ill - health, lack of community life, violence, drug problems, obesity, long working hours and a big prison population.

Question 38

Sharpe

Answer 38

Compared attitudes of girls from WC backgrounds in the 1970’s and then in the 1990’s.She found that attitudes had changed over time - 1990’s girls were more assertive and committed to gender equality.

Question 39

Sharpe evaluation

Answer 39

If girls have higher attainment than boys now, why are they not head/CEO’s of large companies-these roles are generally taken by men- difference in attainment and attitudes not reflected in the workplace so it could be said that the change hasn’t fully happened

Question 40

Mac an Ghail

Answer 40

Two examples of different types of pro-school subcultures in his participant observation study.
The academic achievers: mainly middle class and pursuing success through traditional A-level subjects.
The new enterprisers: mains from working class backgrounds and pursuing success through vocational subjects such as Business Studies.

Also stated there is a crisis of masculinity due to the decline of traditional male jobs and boys may subscribe to hegemonic masculine behaviour to gain status

Question 41

Mac an Ghaill evaluation

Answer 41

traditional notions of masculinity can be restrictive and harmful, leading to issues such as toxic masculinity and gender inequality.

others believe societal changes have led to burred lines around gender roles, contributing to the crisis

Question 42

Archer

Answer 42

Archer et al found that the young people in the study had constructed identities based upon the wearing of branded sportswear that differentiated them from middle class pupils. The working class identified themselves as ‘Nike’ is comparison to the middle class ‘Gucci’. The working-class students drew symbolic capital (status) from wearing these clothes despite the views of middle-class pupils and teachers as being tasteless. Archer et al also encountered evidence of the impact of not being able to afford a ‘Nike’ identity, with respondents suggesting that they would be mocked for wearing lesser brands. Archer et al also found that the student interviewed drew worth from the brands being associated with black masculinity associated with sports stars that were used to promote brands. For the female respondents, a second aspect of this identify was linked into the wearing of jewellery.

The students have negative outlooks of their educational prospects based upon past interaction with schools. However, the development of ‘Nike’ identities led these students to clash with teachers over wearing trainers instead of shoes, or wearing make-up and jewellery. This led to them being further marginalised within the field of education. Staff interviewed by Archer et al feared that the consumer lifestyle working-class pupils were being drawn into could led to pressure of being involved in illegal economic activities. Archer et al found that the students were aware of financial pressures and knew of ‘shady activities’ that could help them. They also were also aware that university would mean that their lifestyle would be limited and as such decided it was not for them.

Question 43

Reay

Answer 43

There are predominantly middle class comprehensives and predominantly working class and ethnically mixed comprehensives - and despite all the rhetoric around pupil premiums,
pupils in the more working class comprehensives get less money per head. They get less qualified teachers. They get higher levels of teacher turnover and more supply teachers. Even if they are in the same schools as middle class children, they are in lower sets and yet again they get less experienced teachers.

If you’re a working class child, you’re starting the race halfway round the track behind the middle class child. Middle class parents do a lot via extra resources and activities.This contributes to class inequalities

Question 44

Willis

Answer 44

Paul Willis claimed that ‘the lads’ had formed an anti-school subculture. They rejected school and all its values and instead focussed on the day they would eventually be allowed to leave. They formed their own set of values opposed to those of the school. For example, valuing ‘having a laugh’ in lessons instead of learning.

Question 45

Feinstein

Answer 45

Parents with education genuinely have more of an awareness on what is needed for success in education. These individuals tend to engage in behaviours such as reading, educational trips, and fostering relationships with teachers.

Question 46

Fuller

Answer 46

stated that African-Caribbean girls resisted negative labelling and
worked hard to achieve.

Question 47

Becker (Interactionist)

Answer 47

believes negative labelling of students leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy – usually of failure. His idea that teachers evaluate students on what they perceive to be the ‘ideal student’ –
usually hard-working, obedient and middle-class.

Question 48

Oakley

Answer 48

traditional gender roles and expectations limit educational opportunities for girls.Societal norms can lead to disparities in achievement and opportunities

Question 49

McRobbie

Answer 49

…

Question 50

Epstein

Answer 50

boys are at risk of being labelled as gay if they try to work hard in school

Question 51

Mitsos and Browne

Answer 51

discuss feminisation of education
and girls having positive role models, with the rise of more female teachers (especially in primary schools).
Coursework suits girls more than boys. Subjects such as English Literature suits girls more than boys.

Question 52

Bull

Answer 52

refers to ‘the cost of free schooling’-children from poor families have to do without equipment and miss out on experiences that would enhance their educational achievement.

Question 53

Ball on cultural capital

Answer 53

middle class parents are ‘skilled choosers’ due to cultural capital

w/c parents are disconnected choosers due to lack of knowledge

Question 54

Reay’s evidence of cultural capital

Answer 54

MC mothers have cultural capital which give their children an advantage even though WC mothers worked just as hard as MC Mothers

Middle Class mothers had more educational qualifications and more information about how the educational system operated. They used this cultural capital to help their children with homework, bolstering their confidence and sorting out their problems with teachers.