sociological theory

Question 1

Durkheim

Answer 1

Concerned by rapid social change. from traditional to a complex modern society

1. traditional society
2. modern society
3. rapid change
4. social facts

Question 2

Durkheim: traditional society

Answer 2

little division of labour
members fairly alike
strong collective conscience that bound them so tightly, that individuals did not really exists

Question 3

Durkheim: modern society

Answer 3

complex division of labour
promotes differences between groups
weakens solidarity
greater individual freedom must be restricted to reduce extreme egoism from destroying all social bonds

Question 4

Durkheim: rapid change

Answer 4

undermines old norms without creating new ones
throws people into a state of anomie
threat to social cohesion

Question 5

Durkheim: social facts

Answer 5

society is a separate entity that exists over and above its members
system of external social facts shaping behaviour to serve society’s needs

Question 6

Parsons Organic analogy

Answer 6

society is constructed of self regulating organisations that are inter-related and interdependent
Individuals have needs to be met if they are to survive i.e. adequate socialisation
Function of any part of the system contributes to society

Question 7

Parsons consensus and social order

Answer 7

social order is achieved through a central value system/ shared culture - set of norms and values, beliefs and goals (this is a value consensus)

Question 8

Parsons integration of the individual

Answer 8

value consensus makes social order possible by integrating individuals into the social system and directing them to the system’s needs
mechanisms that make us conform to chared norms;
1.Socialisationss - family, education, work
2.Social contol - positive sanctions, rewards,
ensure individuals are orientated towards pursuing society’s shared goals

Question 9

Parsons parts of the social system

Answer 9

norms- govern individual’s actions
status-roles-tell us how the occupant of a status should act
institutions-clusters of status roles
sub-systems-groups of related institutions i.e. shops, farms, factories, banks = economic sub system
The social system- groups of sub systems that together make up a social system

Question 10

Parsons types of society

Answer 10

traditional- ascribed statuses, immediate gratification, collective orientation
modern- achieved status, norms are universalistic, deferred gratification emphasised, individualistic orientation

Question 11

Parsons social change

Answer 11

structural differentiation - gradual process in which separate functionally specialised institutions develop, meeting a different need

Question 12

Merton’s internal critique of functionalism

Answer 12

wrong to assume society is always smooth-running, well-integrated.

1. Indispensability: parson sees everything as indispensable but Merton argues this is an untested assumption and there may be alternatives.
2. Functional unity: parsons claims all parts of society are tightly integrated so change in one part will have a much wider impact. In modern society there are many parts, some only distantly related with functional autonomy
3. Universal functionalism: parsons sees everything as having a positive function yet some things that are functional for some are dysfunctional for others i.e poverty

Question 13

Merton’s manifest versus latent functions

Answer 13

manifest (intended) functions
latent (unintended) functions
distinction between these reveal connections between social phenomena that the actors may be unaware of
i.e. Hopi Indian rain dance’s manifest function was to prevent rain but latent function was to promote social solidarity during hardship caused by drought

Question 14

External critique of functionalism (logical)

Answer 14

• Teleology: things exists for the purpose of function. i.e. family exists to socialise children - thus it explains the existence of the family in terms of its effect
• Unfalsifiability: functionalism is unscientific as its claims are are not falsifiable. Deviance is seen as both functional and dysfunctional which can never be disproved.

Question 15

External critique of functionalism (conflict perspective)

Answer 15

Marxism: 'shared' values are not agreed but imposed on society in interests of the dominant class 
Conflict theorists: conservative ideology, legitimating the status quo i.e. assumptions of indispensability

Question 16

External critique of functionalism (action perspective)

Answer 16

over socialised/deterministic view on individuals in which they have no free will or choice. people are deemed puppets whose strings are pulled by the social system

Question 17

External critique of functionalism (postmodernists)

Answer 17

-functionalism cannot account for diversity and instability in today’s society
-functionalism is an example of meta-narratives trying to create a model of society working as a whole .
Today’s society cannot be covered by an overall theory because it is increasingly fragmented

Question 18

Marx’s main ideas

Answer 18

• it is possible to understand society scientifically

- knowledge would point the way to a better world. A continuation of the enlightenment project

Question 19

Marx historical materialism

Answer 19

• humans are materialistic thus must work to gain material needs using forces of production
• at first these forces were unaided human labour but over time tools were developed, humans also cooperate entering social relations of production (ways of organising production)
• forces of production develop as do social relations. division of labour develops resulting in 2 classes - a class that owns means of production and a class of labourers
• production is then directed by owners to meet their needs

Question 20

Marx class society and exploitation

Answer 20

One class owns the means of production enabling them to exploit the worker for their own benefit.
they can control the difference between what labourers actually produce and what they need to subsist.
3 class societies:
1. ancient society: exploitation of slaves legally tied to owners
2. feudal society: exploitation of agricultural labourers legally tied to land
3. capitalist society: exploitation of free wage labourers

Question 21

Marx capitalism

Answer 21

3 distinct features:

1. proletariat are legally free and separated from means of productions- labour sold in return for wages
2. through competition ownership of the means of production becomes concentrated in fewer hands. it also forces capitalists to pay the lowest wages possible causing impoverishment of the proletariat
3. capitalism continually expands the forces of production in its pursuit of profit, production becomes concentrated in larger units and technological advances de-skill the workforce

Question 22

Marx class-conscience

Answer 22

Polarising the classes brings the proletariat together and drives down their wages.
thus capitalism creates a consciousness
the proletariat moves from being a class in itself to a class for itself- aware of the need to overthrow capitalism

Question 23

Marx ideology

Answer 23

the bourgeoisie owns material production also controls means of mental production

• dominant ideas in society are ideas of economically dominant class, spread through institutions such as religion, education and media
• capitalism impoverishes the workers so they begin to see through capitalist ideology and develop a class consciousness

Question 24

Marx alienation

Answer 24

result of loss of control over our labour and its products

-alienation reaches its peak under capitalism, the division of labour makes it more intense

Question 25

Criticisms of marx (class)

Answer 25

• sees class as the only division i.e. feminists would say gender is the dominant division
• two class model is too simplistic, Weber separates the proletariat in to skilled and unskilled classes

Question 26

Criticisms of marx (economic determinism)

Answer 26

Marx’s model is criticised for economic determinism.

Does not recognise humans have free will and can bring about change with conscious actions

Question 27

Gramsci and hegemony

Answer 27

Explains how the ruling class maintains its position

1. coercion- the army, police, prisons and courts of the capitalist state force other classes to accept its rule
2. consent(hegemony)- ruling class use ideas and values to persuade the subordinate classes that their rule is legitimate

HOWEVER ruling class hegemony is never complete because:

• they are the minority and have to make compromises with other classes
• proletariat have a dual consciousness - they ‘see through’ proletariat ideology

Question 28

Althusser’s structuralist marxism

Answer 28

• not actions but social structures that shape history

- Althusser’s version of marxism rejects both economic determinism and humanism

Question 29

Althusser’s structuralist marxism (criticisms of Marx’s base -superstructure model)

Answer 29

Marx stated that society’s economic base determines its superstructure of institutions, ideologies etc. Althusser created a more complex structural determinism:

1. economic level: comprising all activities which involve producing something to satisfy a need
2. political level: comprising all forms of organisation
3. ideological level: the ways people see themselves and their world

Question 30

Althusser ideological and repressive state apparatuses

Answer 30

he divides the state in to two apparatuses:

1. repressive state apparatuses: ‘armed bodies of men’ that coerce the working class into complying with the will of the bourgeoisie. i.e. police, courts,
2. ideological state apparatuses: manipulating the working class into accepting capitalism as legitimate. i.e. media

Question 31

Althusser’s criticisms of humanism

Answer 31

free will, choice and creativity are an illusion, everything is the result of underlying structures
-humans are controlled by structures that determine our thoughts and actions

Question 32

Liberal/reformist feminism

Answer 32

• concerned with human and civil rights and freedoms of the indiv
• believe women can achieve gender equality through reform and promotion of equal rights

Question 33

liberal feminists and cultural chance

Answer 33

want cultural change because traditional prejudices and stereotypes about gender differences are a barrier to equality

Question 34

liberal feminists and sex and gender

Answer 34

sex: biological differences between men and women
gender: culturally constructed differences between masculine and feminine roles and identities assigned to sexes.

Question 35

liberal feminism and socialisation

Answer 35

• sexists attitudes and stereotypical beliefs about gender are culturally constructed and maintained through socialisation
• this means we must change society’s socialisation patterns
• over time liberal feminists believe this will produce cultural change and gender equality will become the norm

Question 36

radical feminism

Answer 36

• patriarchy is universal
• patriarchy is fundamental (most basic form of social inequality)
• all men oppress all women
• patriarchal oppression is direct and personal (not just in the public sphere but in private life too)

Question 37

radical feminism and politics

Answer 37

-personal is political
-all relationships involve power, personal relationships between men and women are political as men dominate women
-