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MCAT Psychology/Sociology > Sociological Theories and Social Institutions > Flashcards

Sociological Theories and Social Institutions Flashcards

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1
Q

1) (Structural) Functionalism

A

Founder: Émile Durkheim (founder of sociology)
Level: macro
Definition: society is a complex system, individual parts work together to maintain solidarity, order, balance and social stability
Flaws: assumes equal and functioning society, individual circumstances not considered
Key words: dynamic equilibrium, common consciousness, anomie

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2
Q

Dynamic Equillibrium

A

occurs when complex societies contain many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability

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3
Q

Collective consciousness

A

how people of a shared culture come to think in the same manner due to their shared beliefs, ideas, and moral attitudes, all which operate to unify society

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4
Q

Manifest Function

A

official, intended and anticipated consequences of a structure, and are beneficial

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5
Q

Latent Function

A

Consequences of a structure that are not officially sought or sanctioned. Can be beneficial, neutral or harmful

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6
Q

Social dysfunction

A

a process that has undesirable consequences and may actually reduce the stability of society

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7
Q

2) Conflict Theory

A

Founder: Karl Marx and Max Weber (founders of sociology)
Level: macro
Definition: society is a competition for limited resources, individuals and groups compete for social, political and material power.
-Marx = looked at the economic conflict between social classes, capitalism encourages private ownership. Felt that workers’ revolution was inevitable, and capitalism would be replaced by socialism
Flaws: too extreme, too focused on economics
-Weber = refined and critiqued Marx’s tenets. Did not believe collapse of capitalism was inevitable. There could be more than one source of conflict, such as agreement with authority, high rates of social mobility and low rates of class difference
Key words: imbalances, class struggle, inequality

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8
Q

Capitalism

A

encourages competition and private ownership

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9
Q

Bourgeoisie

A

the ruling class owns the means of production

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10
Q

Proletariat

A

working-class, provides labour
is oppressed and exploited by the capitalist bourgeois class, paying members a fraction of the production value of their labour

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11
Q

Hegemony

A

coerced acceptance of the values, expectations and conditions as determined by the capitalist class

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12
Q

Class consciousness

A

exploited workers’ awareness of the reasons for their oppression

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13
Q

Communism

A

all means of production are owned by all workers equally

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14
Q

Protestant/Puritan work ethic

A

the widely-held religious belief that lauded the morality of hard work for the sake of godliness

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15
Q

Rationalization of Society

A

our increasing concern with efficiency (achieving max results with the min amount of effort)

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16
Q

3) Symbolic Interaction

A

Founder: Herbert Mead
Level: micro
Definition: emphasizes the ways by which individuals actively shape their world through their understanding and subsequent behavioural responses to the meanings they attribute to the societal symbols through which individuals define their reality. Examines the relationships between individuals and society by focusing on the exchange of information through language and symbols.
-Mead = interested in identity and the development of. the self, developed through 3 activities (language, games, play). “I” represents individualistic self, “me” represents the social self
Key words:

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17
Q

Thomas Theorem

A

theory that interpretation of a situation affects the response to that situation

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18
Q

4) Social Constructionism

A

Level: both macro and micro
Definition: “reality” is not inherent, but socially constructed. argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions. Focuses on social constructs that change across cultures and within a single culture over time. Also analyzes the effects of mass media and contends. that. mass media corporations have become the main mechanisms by which our social institutions transmit culture to preserve power and authority
Key words:

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19
Q

Stocks of knowledge

A

allow us to classify objects and actions we observe quickly and routinely structure our own actions in immediate response (notification)

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20
Q

5) Feminist Theory

A

Level: both micro and macro
Definition: Concerned with the social experiences of. both men. and women and the differences between these experiences. Described as a collection of social movements with the purpose of establishing men and women as equals in terms of social rights, roles, statuses.
Key words: gender inequality

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21
Q

Intersectionality

A

posits that various human aspects subject to societal oppression do not exist isolated. and separated from each other, but instead have complex, influential and interwoven relationships

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22
Q

6) Rational Choice and Social Exchange theories

A

Level: usually micro
Definition: individuals seek to maximize the benefits they gain and minimize the disadvantages they sustain in all of their social interactions.
Key words: maximize benefits/rewards and reduce costs/punishments

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23
Q

Utilitarianism

A

based on 2 assumptions (1) that the individual. humans are rational in their actions and (2) that in every human interaction, individuals will seek to maximize their own self-interest

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24
Q

Social Institutions

A

complexes of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contribute to social order by governing the behaviour of people. Examples include education systems, family, religions, government and health care systems

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25
Q

Family

A

defined as a set of. people related by blood, marriage, adoption or some other agreed-upon relationship that signifies some responsibility to each other. Serve 5 functions

1) reproduction and the monitoring of sexual behaviour
2) protection
3) socialization - passing down norms and values of society
4) affection and companionshio
5) social status - social position is often based on family background and reputation

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26
Q

Nuclear family

A

consisting of direct blood relations

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27
Q

Extended family

A

grandparents, aunts, uncles and others are included

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28
Q

Monogamy

A

refers to forms of marriage in which two individuals are married only to each other

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29
Q

Polygamy

A

allows an individual to have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously

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30
Q

Polygyny

A

refers to a man married to more than one woman

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31
Q

Polyandry

A

refers to a woman married to more than one man

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32
Q

Endogamy

A

refers to the practice of marrying within a particular group

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33
Q

Exogamy

A

refers to a requirement to marry outside a particular group

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34
Q

Kinship

A

how we think about who we are related to. May include extended family and members of the community or friends (godparents, close family friends)

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35
Q

Kin

A

considered a cultural group rather than a biological one, do not have to live together

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36
Q

Bilateral descent

A

Kin groups involve both maternal and paternal relations

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37
Q

Patrilineal descent

A

preference for paternal relations

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38
Q

Matrilineal descent

A

preference for maternal relations

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39
Q

Patriarchy

A

men have more authority than women

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40
Q

Matriarchy

A

women have more authority than men

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41
Q

Egalitarian Family

A

spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions

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42
Q

Cultural differences

A

many cultures emphasize the importance of extended family, often living with grandparents, cousins…
- some cases “kin” who are non-blood related members of the community may be considered part of the family

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43
Q

Divorce

A

the divorce rate has generally risen in the US due to several factors

  • there is a growing social and religious acceptance of divorce
  • more and more opportunities are becoming available for women to succeed autonomously making divorce a real possibility
  • the financial and legal barriers to divorce have lessened over time as it has become more common
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44
Q

Cohabitation

A

Couples living together without getting married. Sometimes these couples will have children and do many of the same things “traditionally” married couples do, but remain legally unmarried

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45
Q

Lesbian and gay relationships

A

often engage in all of the same behaviours that a “traditionally” married couple might, including property ownership and raising children

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46
Q

Family violence

A

dramatic example in which one member of. the family is directly responsible for the threat through their mistreatment of another person, often in attempt to gain power, leaving the target fearful and powerless

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47
Q

Child abuse

A

involves vioulence directed towards a child target. There are 4 categories of child abuse:

1) physical abuse
2) emotional abuse
3) sexual abuse
4) neglect

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48
Q

Domestic abuse

A

a.k.a dating abuse or spousal abuse, involves violence directed toward one partner of an intimate relationship, where the abuser is the second partner

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49
Q

Elder abuse

A

involves violence directed toward an older target

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50
Q

Educational institutions

A

Manifest function: systematically pass down knowledge. and to give status to those who have been educated
Latent function: socialization, serving as agents of change, maintaining social control

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51
Q

Hidden curriculum

A

often conflicts with the manifest curriculum, unintentional lessons about norms values and beliefs

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52
Q

Educational segregation

A

widening disparity between children from high-income neighbourhoods and those from low-income neighbourhoods

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53
Q

False consciousness

A

lack of such awareness that they are a group that is exploited by the wealthy

54
Q

Looking-glass self

A

self is. shaped by others and interactions with others and the perception of others. Individuals shape themselves on this perception, tending to confirm expectations

55
Q

Social construct

A

anything that appears natural or obvious to the people but is largely the invention of a given society

56
Q

Socialization

A

dynamic ongoing process by which an individual internalizes the values, beliefs and norms of their society and learns to function as a member of that society

57
Q

First-wave feminism

A

focused on womens’ suffrage; right to vote, own property, equal rights within marriage, work for wage

58
Q

Second-wave feminism

A

focused on womens’ social liberties; gender equality, equal pay, sexual de-stigmitization, reproductive rights

59
Q

Third-wave feminism

A

focused on intersectionality, how different social identities interact

60
Q

Anomie

A

occurs when societal values do not adequately guide individual or group behaviour

61
Q

Ways education promotes equality

A

more education is associated with less inequality

62
Q

Ways education promote inequality

A

hidden curriculum, teacher expectancy, educational segregation and stratification

63
Q

Teacher expectancy theory

A

students tend to match teacher expectations (positive or negative)

64
Q

Educational stratification

A

education can also reinforce and perpetuate social inequalities

65
Q

Religion

A

involves beliefs and practices related to the sacred

66
Q

Ecclesia

A

a dominant religious organization that includes most members of society. Recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions. Often integrated into political institution

67
Q

Church

A

a type of religious organization that is well integrated into the larger society. Membership can be by birth or joining

68
Q

Sect

A

a religious organization. that is dinstinct from that of the larger society. Formed from breaking away from larger religious institutions

69
Q

Cult/new religious movement

A

a religious organization that is far outside society’s norms and often involves a very different. lifestyle

70
Q

Secularization

A

process through which religion loses its social significance in modern societies

71
Q

Fundamentalism

A

second response to modernist societies in which there is a strong attachment to traditional religious beliefs and practices and a strict adherance to basic religious doctrines

72
Q

Christianity

A

largest single faith in the world. Monoatheistic and followers also believe in prophets (Jesus as the son of God), an afterlife and a judgement day

73
Q

Islam

A

second largest religion in the world. Followers are muslim, monoatheist (Allah) and its followers believe in prophets (with the final one being Mohammad), an afterlife and a judgement day

74
Q

Hinduism

A

polytheistic religion (many gods), there are major deities such as Shiva and Vishnu and also believe in reincarnation, or rebirth after death

75
Q

Buddhism

A

teaches overcoming cravings for physical or matetial pleasures primarily through meditative practices

76
Q

Judaism

A

monoatheistic and formed the historical basis for Christianity and Islam. Jews believe that God formed a covenant with Abraham and Sarah, and that if certain rules were followed (the ten commandments), God would bring paradise to Earth

77
Q

Religiosity

A

refers to the extent of. influence of religion in a persons life

78
Q

Government

A

makes and enforces the rules of a society and regulates relations with other societies

79
Q

Economy

A

arranges the production, distribution and consumption. of goods, services and resources

80
Q

Rational-legal authority

A

legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document like the constitution.

81
Q

Traditional authority

A

from custom, tradition, or accepted practice

82
Q

Charismatic authority

A

power of their persuasion

83
Q

Iron law of oligarchy

A

states that all forms of organization develop oligarchic tendencies, especially in large groups and complex organizations. Some power will be concentrated, thereby establishing a new ruling class

84
Q

Aristarchic governments

A

controlled by a small group of people, selected based on specific qualifications, with decision-making power; public not involved in most political decisions

85
Q

Aristocracies

A

those ruled by elite citizens like those with noble births

86
Q

Meritocracies

A

those ruled by the meritocrious, like those with a record of meaningful social contributions

87
Q

Autocratic governments

A

are controlled by a single person, or a selective small group, with absolute decision-making power. Include dictatorships, and fascist government

88
Q

Dictatorship

A

ruled by one person

89
Q

Fascist government

A

those ruled by a small group of leaders

90
Q

Monarchic governments

A

controlled by. a single person, or a selective small group, who inherited their leadership role (kings and queens)

91
Q

Authoritarian government

A

consist of unelected leaders; the public might have some. individual freedoms, but have no control over representation

92
Q

Totalitarianism

A

those in which unelected leaders regulate both public and private life through coercive means of control

93
Q

Democratic governments

A

consist of elected leaders; the public has some degree of political decision making power through either direct decisions or representation

94
Q

Direct democracies

A

governments in which there is direct public participation

95
Q

Representative democracies

A

governments in which there is indirect public participation through the election of representatives

96
Q

Political parties

A

formal groups of people that share the same prinicple political beliefs and organize with a common purpose of ensuring governance

97
Q

Oligarchic governments

A

less clear as leaders can be elected or unelected; the public might have. the power to elect representation, but people have little influence in directing decisions and social change. Controlled by a small group of people with shared interests

98
Q

Republican governments

A

consider their countries to be public conerns and are thus democratic in nature. People have the. supreme power in these societies

99
Q

Federalistic governments

A

include a governing representative head that shares power with constituent groups

100
Q

Parlimentary governments

A

include both executive. and legislative branches that are interconnected; members of. the executive branch (ministers) are accountable. to members of the legislative

101
Q

Presidential governments

A

also include organizing branches, as well as head of state

102
Q

Anarchy

A

societies without a public government “lawlessness”

103
Q

Command/planned economies

A

economic decisions are based on a plan of production and the means of production are often public (socialism and communism)

104
Q

Market economies

A

economic decisions are based on the market (“supply and demand”) and the means of production. are often private

105
Q

Mixed economies

A

blend elements of. command and market economies with both public and private ownership

106
Q

Traditional economies

A

consider social customs in economic decisions

107
Q

Capitalism (economy)

A

economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned, and goods/services are produced for profit

108
Q

Socialism (economy)

A

economic system where resources and production are collectively owned

109
Q

Communism (economy)

A

specific socialist structure in which there is common ownership of the means of production, but also the absence of currencies, class and states

110
Q

Welfare capitalism

A

most of the economy is private with the exeption of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society

111
Q

State capitalism

A

system in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations

112
Q

Division of labour

A

occurs as societies become so complex that it is not possible for an individual to meed all of his or her needs alone. Different occupations emerge as a response

113
Q

Mechanical solidarity

A

allows society to remain integrated because individuals have common beliefs that lead to each person having the same fundamental experience

114
Q

Organic solidarity

A

allows societies to integrate through a division of labour, which leads to each person having a different personal experience

115
Q

McDonadization

A

refers to the principles of the fast-food industry dominating other sectors of society

116
Q

Medical model of disease

A

emphasizes physical or medical factors as being the cause of all illness

117
Q

Medicalization

A

process by which a condition comes to be re-conceptualized as a disease with a medical diagnosis and a medical treatment

118
Q

Social model of disease

A

emphasizes. the effect one’s social class, employment status, neighbourhood, exposure to environmental toxins, diet and other factors can have on personal health

119
Q

Primary care

A

care provider responsible for ongoing preventative care or disease management

120
Q

Secondary care

A

acute care, as well as specialty care, which is often recieved following a referral from a primary care providor

121
Q

Tertiary care

A

very specialized form of health care, based on consultations with specialist care providers. Ex. cancer hospitals, burn centers, palliative care facilities

122
Q

Social epidemiology

A

study of how social organization contributes to. the prevalence, incidence. and distribution of disease across and within populations

123
Q

Food desert

A

area where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find because there are no proper grocery stores

124
Q

Sick role

A

when a person is ill, he or she is not able to be a contributing member of society, a type of deviance. has 2 rights and 2 obligations. Rights include: being excempt from normal social roles and they are not responsible for his or her condition. Obligations include: sick person should try and get well and should seek treatment and cooperate with medical professional

125
Q

Availabliltiy

A

presence of resources

126
Q

Accessibility

A

ability to obtain existing resources

127
Q

Social condition

A

social determinants of health such as availability of food supply, drug use, access to quality education, unemployment, crime rates, and access to healthcare

128
Q

Favourable conditional factors

A

improve overal quality of life

129
Q

Social problems

A

social conditions with a negative impact

130
Q

Social isolation

A

is the complete or near-complete lack of contact with others in society

131
Q

Socioeconomic gradients in health

A

theory that there exists a proportional increase in health and health outcomes as socioeconomic status increases

MCAT Psychology/Sociology (6 decks)

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