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sociology ms siddiqua > sociological research methods > Flashcards

sociological research methods Flashcards

1
Q

what is primary data

A

information gathered directly by the sociologists - both quantitative and qualitative

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2
Q

what is secondary data

A

the information already exists, so it has to be collected by somebody else - both quantitative and qualitative

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3
Q

define representative

A
  • is the sample large enough to make generalisations from the data
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4
Q

define reliability

A

can you replicate the study easily to see if it will produce similar results

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5
Q

define validity

A

is the that reflecting the truth? have participants been honest/was their behaviour natural?

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6
Q

define ethics

A

is it following the rules of the BSA

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7
Q

qualitative data

A

data that is in a written form - cannot be measured or counted, but can be collected and interpreted. can be used to construct written reports and theories about society

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8
Q

quantitative data

A

data that can be expressed as a number or quantified. data can be used to construct graphs and tables of data

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9
Q

ethnography

A

means writing about the way of life, or culture of social groups

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10
Q

stages of research

A
  1. aim - purpose of the study
  2. hypothesis - a statement you can test with research
  3. operationalisation - break down aim or hypothesis into concrete things that can be observed or measured eg. define the concept ebing measured
  4. pilot study - small scale trial study to check the reliability and validity of the research before conducting the actual research
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11
Q

write does the stages of research and examples

A
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12
Q

what is the positivist approach/belief

A
  • claims that human behaviour is predictable
  • human behaviour can be objectively and scientfically measured in much the same way as the natural world
  • claim that social forces (social facts) or laws shape and determine social actions of people
  • the organisation of society is called the social structure
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13
Q

what do positivists argue about patterns and trends

A
  • social structure produce social forces or laws over which people have little/no control
  • more concerned with the relationship between the different parts of the social structure, less about how they feel
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14
Q

strengths of the positivist approach

A
  • scientific approach to sociological study
  • replication is important to ensure reliability
  • objective and value free - sociologists are neutral and do not let their personal bias to impact any aspect of their method or interpretation
  • scientific sample techniques can help increase objectivity to ensure distance
  • participants representativeness
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15
Q

Durkheim’s study of suicide

A
  • examined 19th C suicide rates across a number or Euro cities
  • observed 3 trends: suicide rates remain constant and predictable over time, constant between societies and they remain constant between social groups
  • concluded that suicide rates were not the result of free will but rather suicide was a social fact
  • too much individualism was leading to higher suicide rates in countries that failed to integrate all its members
  • catholic societies had a higher sense of community which explained the lower suicide rates in comparison to protestant countries
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16
Q

why has the positivist approach remained popular

A
  1. remaining objective and adopting scientific approach free from bias
  2. gov prefers to fund research projects that adopt positivist styles research which allows generalisations to be made and less likely to be contaminated by the researcher’s values
  3. attract more prestige due to the status of science in society
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17
Q

what is the general interpretivist approach

A
  • people are active creators of their own destinies because they are conscious beings who act with intention and purpose - agency
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18
Q

what was weber’s view

A
  • rejected the view that human beings can be treated like objects
  • people have free will and are aware of what is going on in social situations and have the choice on how to behave
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19
Q

what are the 2 social processes that interpretivists believe construct society

A
  1. people choose to come together to interact in social groups eg. choose to live in families
  2. what makes an interaction or event ‘social’ is that all those who take part give it the same meaning - without this there can be no social interaction eg. a family isn’t just a biological group but people who interpret themselves as a family and act accordingly
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20
Q

how did mead further develop weber’s ideas

A
  • argued that people’s sense of self can only develop in a social context
  • people learn to interpret interactions and situations to produce an action
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21
Q

Atkinson’s study of Durkheim’s suicide study

A
  • critical of the use of statistics because Durkheim failed to appreciate that these were socially constructed
  • suicide was based on the interaction between victim and family members as well as the coroners interpretation of what had happened
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22
Q

define verstehen

A
  • empathy - weber claimed it was necessary to be empathetic and understating to explain social actions
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23
Q

strengths of interpretivism

A
  • VALIDITY
  • the research methods are ethnographic - meaning they involved trying to understand social behaviour and the organisation of societies by going out and understanding
  • unique and trusting relationships (rapport) should be established with those being studied so that a true picture of their lives can be constructed
  • endeavours to get inside people’s heads and experience the world from their POV
  • verstehen needs to be established in order to understand the feelings of the research subject about their subjective experience
  • qualitative data which presents the quality of the way or life of the research subjects in words not numbers
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24
Q

criticism of interpretivist approach

A
  • ‘bad science’
  • often unsystematic and unstructured because it focuses on naturally occurring behaviour
  • requires the researcher to be part of the study - risk of being obtrusive and influencing behaviour - DECREASES VALIDITY
  • not possible to judge from ethnographic research whether the social context is representative
  • reliability cannot be guaranteed as it is difficult to replicate
  • biased qualitative data because it is the result of interpretations not facts
  • data may not be representative as the researcher chooses which interactions are worth recording and analysing
  • ethnographic studies do not study the wider context within the setting of the study eg. factors like social class on the behaviour of the group
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25
Q

how do interpretivists counter the criticisms?

A
  • REFLEXIVITY - form of self evaluation that involves thinking critically about your work and how certain factors may have influenced the research, any mistakes made etc
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26
Q

what is a ‘third’ research way

A
  • most researchers use a mix of interpretivism and positivism
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27
Q

what are 2 types of social phenomena that sociologists regard when choosing topics to research

A
  1. social problems
  2. sociological problems
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28
Q

what is a social problem

A
  • aspects of life that cause misery and anxiety to individuals and society eg. domestic violence
  • often sponsored by those in power - the gov - to identify the issue to fix it
  • often central to social policy as it provides gov with data about the extent of the problem BUT politicians don’t always agree with the explanations if they sit differently in terms of ideologies
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29
Q

what is a sociological problem

A
  • sociologists are interested in how societies and social institutions work and how individuals interact and interpret behaviour
  • any aspect of life - not just the bad bits eg. research into what makes a happy marriage?
  • aims to increase knowledge of how society works and explain why social institutions and individuals tend to behave in patterned and predictable ways
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30
Q

what should research be in order for it to be used for social policy

A
  1. research aims to be descriptive
  2. research aims to be explanatory
  3. research aims to be evaluative
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30
Q

choice of research is dependent on:

A
  • interests and values of researcher
  • current debates in the world
  • funding
  • access to research subjects
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31
Q

choice of research method will depend on:

A
  • theoretical factors: positivist or interpretivist approach
  • practical factors:
  • cost - secondary data is cheaper than than primary
  • time
  • subject matter of research - eg how easy it is for people to talk about it
  • social characteristics of those being researched - eg. a white person interviewing ethnic minority groups about their experience of racsim
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32
Q
A
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33
Q

ETHICS - rules laid down by the British Sociological Association (BSA)

A
  1. informed consent - do the participants have enough information to give consent?
  2. deception - were the participants deceived about the purpose of the research?
  3. the right to withdraw - are participants allowed to leave the research if they want to?
  4. protection from harm - harm should be mitigated
  5. confidentiality/anonymity - how will you ensure the participants are kept confidential and anonynous?
    6 - is the researcher’s behaviour illegal/immoral?
34
Q

case study - Venkatesh

A
  • gang leader for a day
  • between 1986 - 1996 venkatesh spent time with an organised criminal gang that controlled most of the drug trade in Chicago
  • managed to access the gang via an influential gatekeeper - JT - a local leader of the gang
  • shadowed JT as was able to observe first hand the subculture of the gang and its day to day operations
    ethical issue - dangerous for the researcher and criticised for criminal behaviour occurring in his presence
35
Q

SAMPLING types

A
  1. random
  2. non random
36
Q

types of random sampling

A
  • random
  • systematic
  • stratified
36
Q

random sampling pros and cons

A
  • P: quick
  • C: does not guarantee representativeness especially with small samples
37
Q

pros and cons of systemic sampling

A
  • eg. choosing every 4th person from a sampling frame
  • P: less biased
  • C: quick
    -C: non representative way of producing a sample
38
Q

types of non random sampling

A
  • opportunity
  • purposive
  • quota
  • snowball
  • volunteer
38
Q

pros and cons of stratified sampling

A
  • sample is made up of different layers of the population eg. people from different religions
  • P: representative sample as it reflects the makeup of the group you are studying
  • C: time consuming
39
Q

opportunity sampling pros and cons

A
  • using the participants available at the time
  • P: quick and convenient
  • C: not representative s the people who are available are not always representative of the group
  • C: has bias as it uses the first people you see
40
Q
A
41
Q

purposive sampling, pros and cons

A
  • choosing individuals or cases that fit in the nature of the research
    P: representative
    C: difficulty in accessing the group the researcher wishes to study
42
Q

quota sampling pros and cons

A
  • to take a tailored sample thats in proportion to some characteristic or trait of a population
    P: representative, sample represents the make up of the group
    C: time consuming
43
Q

snowball method pros and cons

A
  • hen the researcher has one participant, and that participant brings more people along and so on so the sample gets bigger
  • P: suitable for researching deviant groups
  • P: suitable for when there is no sampling frame available
  • C: non representative and doesn’t involve and sampling frame
  • C: often small sample
  • C: time consuming
44
Q

volunteer sampling pros and cons

A
  • sample participants volunteer
  • P: suitable for when there is no sampling frame available
  • C: non representative
  • C: doesn’t involve a sampling frame
  • produces small sample
45
Q

QUESTIONNAIRES

A
  • open questions
  • closed questions
46
Q

pros of questionnaires

A
  • can be carried out on a large scale (REPRESENTATIVE)
  • closed questions provide quantitative data that is easy to compare and analyse
  • open ended questions allow participants to elaborate and collect in depth qualitative data
  • questionnaires tend to be the most reliable because the research is standardised (the same each time)
  • easy to replicate
  • cheap
  • quick
  • high VALIDITY - participants more likely to give truthful answers in self completion
  • high RELIABILITY - can be repeated
47
Q

cons of questionnaires

A
  • can be time consuming with a large scale study
  • closed questions can place limitations on answers
  • open questions can be difficult to compare and analyse answers
  • expensive if postal
  • low response rates - decrease REPRESENTATIVENESS
  • low VALIDITY - respondents may not give truthful answers especially with interview questionnaire - may give answers they think the researcher wants
48
Q

structured interviews pros

A
  • formal interview with prepared questions
  • high in RELIABILITY - easy to replicate as all interviewees are asked the same questions
  • the interviewer is present so avoids misinterpretation
  • an interviewer can observe the social context in which answers eg. the facial expression
  • collect in depth qualitative data
49
Q

structured interview cons

A
  • lacks REPRESENTATIVENESS - smaller sample than a questionnaire because its difficult to carry out with a large sample
  • lack of FLEXIBILITY - this means new questions cannot be asked during the interview
  • feminists such as Ann Oakley think that structured interviews create unequal male style as the interviewer controls the conversation which may intimidate the respondent and as a result lead to low VALIDITY
  • INTERVIEWER BIAS - interviewer may influence the respondent to answer in a particular way
  • interviewees may provide socially acceptable answers which leads to low VALIDITY
  • difficult to quantify data
  • time consuming
50
Q

pros and cons of a semi structured interview

A
  • rapport - semi structured interviews encourage a good rapport between respondent and interviewer
  • checking understanding is easier because the interviewer is free to rephrase it
  • collect in depth qualitative data
51
Q

cons of semi structured interviews

A
  • lacks REPRESENTATIVENESS
  • low VALIDITY - interviewer bias
  • difficult to quantify
  • low RELIABILITY - as questions are not standardised it makes them difficult to replicate
  • time consuming - if a sample is very large
  • difficult to quantify - qualitative data
52
Q

unstructured interviews advantages

A
  • builds rapport
  • unstructured interviews are good for sensitive topics because they are likely to make respondents feel at ease
  • Feminists like Ann Oakley say that unstructured in are more equal, allowing respondents to be more open, and questions can be asked by both interviewer and respondent
  • collect in-depth qualitative data
53
Q

unstructured interviews disadvantages

A
  • lacks REPRESENTATIVENESS
  • low VALIDITY and INTERVIEWER BIAS - socially desirable answers
  • difficult to quantify
  • low RELIABILITY - as questions are not standardised it makes it difficult to replicate the study
  • difficult to quantify data
54
Q

focus group interviews advantages

A
  • produces qualitative data through open ended questions, allowing respondents to talk in depth
  • increased VALIDITY because some participants may feel more comfortable being with others
55
Q

focus group disadvantages

A
  • maintaining confidentiality is hard
  • lacks RELIABILITY - as they use open ended questions and may deviate from the interview schedule making them difficult to repeat
  • low VALIDITY - participants may lie to impress the group
56
Q

longitudinal studies

A
  • studies of the same group of people conducted over a long period of time
57
Q

pros of longitudinal studies

A
  • allows researchers to trace developments over time
  • comparisons over time help identify causes
  • high VALIDITY - as you are collecting data over a long period of time
58
Q

cons of longitudinal studies

A
  • sample attrition - participants could drop out
  • low VALIDITY - participants may act differently because they know they are part of a study
  • costly
  • time consuming (obviously)
  • continuity over many years may be a problem
  • low RELIABILITY - difficult to repeat
59
Q

OBSERVATIONS

A
  • research is ethnographic
  • often dependent on a gatekeeper to gain access to group being observed
60
Q

participant observation

A
  • the researcher acts like a member of the group understudy and basically does what they do
61
Q

pros of participant observation

A
  • researchers see things through the eyes
  • understanding of group experiences
  • ‘verstehen’ - empathise with the group - high VALIDITY
  • useful for observing deviant groups
  • Fielding - gatekeepers are unsung heroes of ethnography as as they can speak to the group beforehand
  • observations can be supplemented by asking informal questions - observers sometimes develop special relationships with key people within group which acts as a type of respondent validation because they can question and clarify
62
Q

cons of participant observation

A
  • observer effect (hawthorne effect) - if a researcher becomes too involved they may lose objectivity and become biased reducing the VALIDITY of the data
  • covert participation - deception
  • low in RELIABILITY - difficult to replicate
  • time consuming
  • institutional gatekeepers might have their own agenda - reduces VALIDITY
63
Q

non participant observation

A
  • the researcher is separate from the group being studied
64
Q

pros of non participant observation

A
  • less likely to develop observer bias - remains objective
  • quantitative data can be gathered through the use of tally charts
  • high RELIABILITY - if observation is carried out in a controlled setting - easier to replicate
65
Q

cons of non participant observation

A
  • as an outsider the observer may not truly understand the reasons for their behaviour
  • if gathering quantitative data - lacks VALIDITY - because you are less able to ask why people are acting in the way they do compared to participant observation
66
Q

overt observation, pros and cons

A
  • participants are aware theyre being studied
  • P: ethical informed consent
  • C: low VALIDITY - due to observer effect (hawthorne effect)
67
Q

covert observation, pros and cons

A
  • participants are not aware of being observed
  • P: high VALIDITY - observe natural behaviour
  • C: can be difficult to get get time/privacy for recording
  • C: relies on researcher’s ability to recall information - reduces VALIDITY
  • C: puts observer at risk of danger
  • C: may be impossible to infiltrate certain situations
  • C: lack of consent
68
Q

pros of observation in general

A
  • behaviour is being observed in a natural setting
  • qualitative data about how people interpret the world around them
  • observer is able to see behaviour they can investigate further by asking questions
  • often more than one observer is used to counter increase RELIABILITY
  • lots of reflexivity with the use of diaries etc
69
Q

cons of observation in general

A
  • sample is UNREPRESENTATIVE
  • low RELIABILITY - difficult to replicate
  • time consuming
  • qualitative data hard to analyse
  • observers need sufficient training to learn how to record data
  • theres always a possibility of missing out information - lower VALIDITY
  • ethics?
  • risk of going native
  • micro studies do not appreciate the impact and influence of structural factors such as social class on the study
  • positvists say they are unsystematic, unstructured and unreliable
  • postmodernists say ethnographic accounts are only taking about the reserahcers experience
70
Q

what are the 2 types of secondary data

A
  1. official/unofficial statistics. eg. data collected by the government agencies eg. ONS/data collected by non-governmental organisations of sociologists
  2. media products eg. television/radio programmes etc
71
Q

advantages of using statistics

A
  • freely available to use
  • easy to access and navigate
  • quanitfiable data easy to compare and analyse
  • sample is REPRESENTATIVE eg. national census
72
Q

disadvantages of using statistics

A
  • may lack VALIDITY - eg crime statistics are only crimes that are REPORTED
  • collected by the state so reported in a certain lens reduces VALIDITY
  • marxist and feminists argue they serve the needs of the rich
  • tell us very little about human stories or interpretations that underpin them
73
Q

what is content analysis

A
  • a quantitative method used to study the ‘content’ of the media
  • involves counting the amount of times something is talked about/mentioned/included
74
Q

pros of content analysis

A
  • cheap, easy, free to access
  • comparative method
  • qualitative data is easy to draw out trends and patterns
  • high RELIABILITY due to ability to cross check
75
Q

cons of content analysis

A
  • RELIABILITY depends of quality of category
  • time consuming
  • human error - lowers VALIDITY
  • quantitative data does not take into consideration the context of the media content
  • cannot be assumed it had an effect upon their audience
  • media products may only tell us about the personal and political beliefs of who made the media
76
Q

mixed methods ways

A
  1. triangulation
  2. methodological pluralism
  3. case study
77
Q

what is triangulation

A
  • combining of research methods in order to check and verify the validity of research findings
78
Q

what is methodological pluralism

A
  • use of primary and secondary methods and the collection of quantitative and qualitative data
79
Q

what is a case study

A
  • detailed and indepth examination of one particular case using M.P
80
Q

pros and cons of mixed methods

A
  • P: gain the different insights into quantitative and qualitative data which increases the RELIABILITY and VALIDITY of the research
  • P: patterns identified in quantitative data can be backed up by detail and understanding
  • P: useful form of cross checking if both methods find the same things
  • C: time consuming
  • C: costly

sociology ms siddiqua (3 decks)

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