SocioCultural Approach Flashcards
Social Identity Theory
Social Identity Theory - A theory proposed by Tajfel & Turner (1979) that explains how individuals will categorize themselves into groups, influencing their social identity and their subsequent behaviors including:
- Intergroup relations (how your group behaves towards other groups)
- Group processes (how a group behaves with others in that group)
The Formation of Social Identity
- Social Categorization - Involves an understanding that groups exists
- Social Identification - Its the readiness of an individual to define themselves as a member of a group
- Social Comparison - Refers to how groups compare themselves to other groups
Positive Distinctiveness - When an individual begins to show how their in-group is preferable to an out-group
Self Categorization Theory - This theory just emphasizes that individuals will change their behavior to match the behaviors in their in-group
Minimal Group Paradigm - Builds on the fact that an individual’s behavior is easy to change once they’re given an in-group
Strengths
Broad Applicability: SIT effectively explains behaviors in social contexts, particularly how identities influence intergroup conflicts, in-group favoritism, stereotyping, and conformity.
Empirical Support: The theory is supported by extensive research, including studies like Tajfel’s Minimal Group Paradigm, demonstrating its robustness.
Testable Hypotheses: SIT provides clear, testable hypotheses, making it a practical model for experimental social psychology.
Limitations
Artificial Research Settings: Critics argue that some supporting studies, such as those using the Minimal Group Paradigm, are too controlled and do not reflect real-world complexities, limiting the theory’s applicability.
Incomplete Explanation for Group Behavior: While SIT explains certain aspects of in-group favoritism, it does not account for all factors that influence this behavior, such as emotional connections or shared history.
Cultural and Contextual Variability: The theory may oversimplify the impact of diverse cultural and situational contexts on the formation of social identities.
Oversimplification of Identity: SIT focuses primarily on group membership, potentially oversimplifying the multifaceted nature of individual identities influenced by multiple overlapping group affiliations and personal factors.
Studies: Tajfel (1970) and Dobbs and Crano (2001)
Tajfel (1970) - Minimal Group Paradigm
Aim: Tajfel sought to demonstrate that minimal conditions (i.e., merely categorizing individuals into distinct groups) are sufficient to encourage discrimination in favor of one’s own group.
Participants: The study involved 64 teenage boys who all knew each other. They participated in groups of eight, coming into the laboratory in eight separate sessions.
Procedure: lab exp.
-Establishing Intergroup Categorization: Initially, the boys participated in a task purportedly about visual judgment, where they were asked to estimate the number of dots in 40 clusters that appeared briefly on a screen. After making their estimations, they were arbitrarily assigned to either an ‘under-estimator’ or ‘over-estimator’ group based on their performance. However, this categorization was random and not actually based on their dot estimations.
- Effects of Categorization: Subsequently, each participant was given a booklet containing several matrices that dictated how money could be allocated between two other participants, whose group membership (either under-estimator or over-estimator) and participant number were indicated. The boys had to choose between options that affected the allocation of money not only to themselves but also to others, either within their own group or between groups.
Findings: The results showed that when participants had to choose how to allocate money in matrices that involved intergroup choices (between an under-estimator and an over-estimator), they displayed a clear preference for giving more money to members of their own group. However, when the choices involved only members of one group (either under-estimators with under-estimators or over-estimators with over-estimators), the allocations were more equitable.
Ethics: deception
Dobbs and Crano (2001) - Challenging the MGP
Aim: Dobbs and Crano wanted to challenge the robustness of the Minimal Group Paradigm by investigating whether the minimal conditions for group formation proposed by Tajfel were sufficient for eliciting in-group favoritism under all circumstances.
Participants: The study involved participants who were randomly assigned to different groups, similar to the original experiments conducted under the MGP. However, the specific details about the number and demographic characteristics of the participants vary depending on the experiment.
Procedure: Unlike Tajfel’s original procedure which involved simple tasks like dot estimation, Dobbs and Crano designed their experiments to include more complex group interactions and varied the perceived meaningfulness of the group distinctions. They tested various conditions to see if these factors would affect the likelihood of in-group favoritism. This included manipulating the perceived importance and relevance of the group categories to the participants.
Findings: found that in-group favoritism was not as robust as previously suggested by the MGP. Their results indicated that in-group bias occurred primarily in situations where group distinctions were perceived as meaningful or relevant by the participants. When group distinctions were viewed as arbitrary or irrelevant, the in-group favoritism effect was significantly weakened.
Social Cognitive Theory
Social Cognitive Theory - Suggests that behavior is acquired through observing a model’s actions, and the subsequent consequences that those actions may bring
Reciprocal Determinism - The core aspects of this theory are the interactions between the individual, the environment, and the individual’s behavior
Its believed that the 3 work interchangeably to produce a simultaneous response
This basically means that the environment influences the individual equally as much as the individual influences the environment
Key Elements of SCT
Identification - Process by which individuals associate themselves with others, particularly to those similar to them
Modelling - Refers to the process of imitating the behavior of others
Expectancies - Refers to the potential outcomes of modelling the behavior (the extent to which an individual would imitate an individual)
Self Efficacy - Refers to the mental and physical ability of an individual to follow the behavior.
Strengths
- Explains Environmental Influence: SCT effectively illustrates how social environments impact behaviors, as evidenced by empirical studies like Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment.
- Cognitive Constructs: The theory emphasizes crucial cognitive constructs like self-efficacy and expectancies, enhancing our understanding of decision-making and behavioral replication.
- Empirical Support: Supported by robust research, SCT offers a validated approach to understanding learning through observation.
Limitations
- Limited Behavioral Scope: SCT struggles to account for behaviors influenced primarily by biological factors, such as autism or schizophrenia, which are less dependent on social learning.
- Neglects Biological Factors: The theory often overlooks the biological (“nature”) aspects of behavior, focusing predominantly on environmental (“nurture”) factors.
- Assumption of Environmental Absorption: SCT may overestimate the degree to which environmental behaviors are absorbed and replicated by individuals, as critiqued by studies like Charlton et al.
- Oversimplification of Complex Interactions: While focusing on observable behaviors, SCT can sometimes simplify the complex interactions among individual differences, cognitive processes, and context.
Studies: Bandura (1961), Joy et al. (1986) and Charlton et al. (2006)
Bandura (1961) - Bobo Doll Experiment
Aim: Bandura aimed to investigate whether children would imitate aggressive behavior modeled by an adult and whether this imitation varied based on the behavior displayed by the model.
Participants: The study included 72 children (36 boys and 36 girls) from a university nursery.
Procedure: Children were divided into three groups, each exposed to different conditions:
Aggressive Model Condition: Children observed an adult behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll, hitting and shouting at the inflatable toy.
Non-Aggressive Model Condition: Children observed an adult interacting peacefully with toys in the vicinity of the Bobo doll but not engaging in aggressive behavior.
No Model Condition: Children played in the room without an adult present to serve as a model.
After the modeling phase, each child was taken to another room filled with toys. Mid-play, the experimenter told the child that these were the best toys and reserved for other children, a technique used to induce mild frustration or anger. The children were then taken back to the original room with the Bobo doll to see how they would behave.
Findings: The results significantly demonstrated that children exposed to the aggressive model were much more likely to engage in similar aggressive actions toward the Bobo doll compared to those in the non-aggressive or no model conditions. This behavior included mimicking the aggressive actions and phrases used by the adult model.
Joy et al. (1986) - aggression and tv
Aim: The research aimed to determine whether television induces aggression in children and how varying levels of TV exposure might affect this behavior.
Participants: The study involved 120 elementary school students distributed across three different towns, each with distinct television viewing conditions.
Procedure: Naturalistic Observation. The three towns represented different conditions based on the availability of television:
Condition 1 (C1): Town with no television at the beginning of the study.
Condition 2 (C2): Town with access to one TV channel.
Condition 3 (C3): Town with access to four TV channels.
The experiment began by observing the children’s baseline levels of aggression, both in school settings such as during classes and recess, as monitored by their teachers. Partway through the study, television was introduced to the previously TV-free town (C1), allowing researchers to observe changes in aggression following the introduction of television.
Findings: Results indicated a noticeable increase in aggressive behaviors among the children in Condition 1 after television was introduced to their environment. In contrast, aggression levels in the children from the other two conditions, who already had access to television, remained consistent throughout the study.
Charlton et Al. (2006) - Counterargument
Aim: The aim was to examine whether the introduction of television would lead to increased aggressive behaviors in children, a hypothesis previously suggested by studies like Joy et al. (1986).
Participants: The participants were children attending two primary schools on St. Helena Island, a location that had not had access to television until the time of the study.
Procedure: To capture the effects of television introduction, researchers installed cameras in the primary schools to observe and record children’s behavior both before and after television was introduced on the island. The children’s behaviors were then compared to those of children in the UK, who had long-term access to television.
Findings: Contrary to expectations and previous studies, the results showed very little change in aggression among the children of St. Helena after television was introduced. When compared to the data from children in the UK, the children on St. Helena did not exhibit increased aggression, indicating that the introduction of television did not have the hypothesized effect.
Stereotypes
Stereotypes - An oversimplified and generally fixed perception about a group of people
Many theories have been proposed to explain how these prejudices are formed
Kernel of Truth Hypothesis - This hypothesis suggests that stereotypes, originate from experience and must contain at least a “Grain of Truth”
This will induce individuals to make assumptions about others because of their perceived ideas of them
Illusionary Correlation - This theory suggests that stereotypes may form when we create a relationship between two variables even when there may be no correlation
Confirmation Bias - Once an illusionary correlation is made, individuals tend to seek out information that supports this correlation. They tend to ignore information that contradicts what they believe, This will induce prejudice.
Strengths
- The hypothesis can effectively explain how stereotypes are formed and maintained over time, particularly through the generalization of observable traits within certain groups.
- Studies like McCauley & Stitt (1978) provide empirical evidence showing that people’s perceptions can align with statistical realities, lending credence to the idea that some stereotypes are based on actual group characteristics.
Limitations
- While the hypothesis accounts for the formation of stereotypes through real observations, it often overlooks the exaggeration and selective perception involved in this process, which can distort the accuracy of these stereotypes.
- Other theories, as noted by researchers like Bodenhausen, suggest that stereotypes can also be derived from cognitive biases, social roles, and group dynamics that the kernel of truth hypothesis does not fully address.
- The hypothesis sometimes fails to consider the inherent biases in the observers. It assumes that observations leading to stereotypes are rational and unbiased, disregarding how personal prejudices and cultural contexts may skew perception.
Studies: McCauley and Stit (1978) KTH and Ford and Stangor (1992), Bodenhausen (1988)
McCauley & Stitt (1978) - Kernel of Truth Hypothesis
Aim: The aim was to investigate whether people’s stereotypes about racial groups have any factual basis by comparing public perceptions with actual statistical data.
Participants: The study included 75 Americans who were asked to participate in a survey about their perceptions of different racial demographics.
Procedure: Participants were asked to estimate the percentage of white and black Americans who had not completed high school, had been victims of crime, and had family members on welfare. These perceptions were then directly compared to actual government statistics to assess the accuracy of the stereotypes.
Findings: The results indicated that there was a notable similarity between the participants’ estimates and the actual governmental statistics. This suggested that the stereotypes held by participants did indeed have a “kernel of truth,” as their perceptions were not entirely unfounded but aligned somewhat closely with real data.
Ethics: Deceptions
Ford and Stangor (1992) - KTH and making assumptions
Ford and Stangor (1992) conducted a study to explore the “kernel of truth” hypothesis and how it influences the formation of stereotypes based on initial impressions and selective information.
Aim: The aim was to examine whether individuals use a few characteristic traits to form general assumptions about groups, thereby contributing to stereotype formation.
Participants: Participants in the study were presented with a booklet containing behavioral descriptions of two fictional groups labeled as the Red group and the Blue group.
Procedure: The booklet described the Red group as having more behaviors related to “friendliness,” while the Blue group had more behaviors related to “intelligence.” After reviewing these descriptions, participants were asked to provide spontaneous characterizations of each group based on the information provided.
Findings: The results demonstrated that participants tended to characterize the groups according to the behavioral traits predominantly associated with each in the booklet. The Red group was more frequently described using terms associated with friendliness, whereas the Blue group was more often characterized by intelligence.
Bodenhausen (1988) - Confirmation Bias
Aim: The study aimed to examine how stereotypes influence jurors’ decisions by causing biased processing of information.
Participants: The study included 90 American college students who participated as mock jurors.
Procedure: Participants were assigned the role of jurors in a trial to assess the guilt of a defendant charged with assault.
To manipulate perceptions based on racial stereotypes, the defendant was presented with one of two names: Carlos Ramirez or Robert Johnson
All jurors received identical case evidence but the name of the defendant varied to examine the impact of racial stereotypes on their judgment.
Findings: The study found that participants who believed the defendant was Hispanic (Carlos Ramirez) were more likely to judge him as guilty compared to those who were presented with a non-Hispanic name (Robert Johnson). This indicates a significant stereotype-driven bias, where jurors were more inclined to confirm the stereotype of Hispanics being more likely to engage in criminal behavior.
The results demonstrate that stereotypes can lead to a bias in information processing, where individuals are more likely to seek and favor information that confirms their pre-existing beliefs, even in the absence of any actual link between the stereotype and the behavior.
Cultural Origins of Behavior
Culture - A dynamic system of rules established by groups, involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors
It has been internalized by individuals and therefore it influences behavior
Memory - The psychological processes of acquiring, storing, retaining, and later retrieving information
Cultural Schemas - Explains how people organize and process information about events and objects in their cultural environment
They seem to have an influence on how memory is stored and retrieved
Flashbulb Memories - A vivid, long-lasting memory about a surprising or shocking event that has happened in the past
These may be promptly elucidated depending on an individual’s culture
Studies: Bartlett (1932) and Brown and Kulik (1977)
Cultural Dimensions
Cultural Dimensions - A framework used to understand the differences in culture across countries in terms of psychological attributes like behavior
This concept was proposed by Hofstede in 1973
Individualism vs. Collectivism
Individualist View - Its the prioritization or emphasis of the individual over the entire group
Collectivist View - A community that prioritizes the group over the individual
Masculinity vs. Femininity
Masculine View - People value competitiveness, assertiveness, ambition, and the accumulation of material possessions
Feminine View - People value relationships and quality of life. They permit more overlapping social roles for the sexes
Studies: Mullen (1994) Levine and Norenzayan (1999) - Pace of Life and Arrindell et al. (2003)
Mullen (1994) Earliest Memories
Aim: The study aimed to investigate how cultural orientations, specifically individualistic versus collectivist values, affect the age at which individuals recall their earliest memories.
Participants: 768 undergraduate students from three distinct cultural groups: Caucasian, Asian, and Asian-American. This diverse sample provided a basis for examining cultural differences in memory recall.
Procedure: Participants were asked to complete questionnaires that assessed their cultural background and elicited information about their earliest memories, including the age at which these memories occurred. The method focused on identifying cultural influences on the recollection of personal events.
Findings: The results indicated that the age of earliest memory was significantly different across cultural groups. Asian and Asian-American participants reported their earliest memories occurring, on average, six months later than those of Caucasian participants. This difference suggests that cultural factors influence how and when memories are formed and recalled.
Levine and Norenzayan (1999) - Pace of Life
Aim: The study aimed to investigate whether countries characterized by individualistic values exhibit a faster pace of life compared to those with collectivist orientations.
Participants: The research did not involve direct participation in the traditional sense but rather an observational comparison of life pace indicators in 31 countries.
Procedure: The researchers measured the pace of life using three specific metrics:
Walking Speed: The speed at which people walked over a short distance in downtown areas of major cities.
Speed of Service at Post Offices: How quickly postal clerks completed a simple request.
Accuracy of Public Clocks: This was assessed by checking the time shown on clocks in randomly selected banks to see their synchronization with standard time.
These measures were intended to objectively assess the tempo at which people conducted daily activities in urban settings across the studied countries.
Findings: The results indicated significant differences in the pace of life across various regions. Japan and several Western European countries displayed the fastest paces of life, aligning with high levels of economic development and individualistic cultural values.
The United States and some Asian countries exhibited a moderate pace of life.
The slowest paces were observed in less developed countries from Latin America, Asia, and the Middle East.
Conclusion: The findings supported their hypothesis that individualistic societies tend to have a faster pace of life. This faster pace can perpetuate norms that further encourage individualistic behaviors, suggesting a cycle where cultural values both influence and are reinforced by the tempo of daily activities. This study sheds light on how deeply embedded cultural values can shape the rhythms of everyday life in significant and measurable ways
