Socialism

Question 1

Explain the emergence of socialism

Answer 1

Socialism emerged in the 19th century as a response to class divisions brought about by the rise of industrial capitalism

Early socialists, particularly Marx and Engels criticised the capitalist system for its exploitation of the working class and proposed overthrowing capitalism in favour of a more equal system, which would be characterised by the redistribution of wealth and workers’ control of the means of production

Question 2

Examples of key texts for revolutionary socialism

Answer 2

The Communist Manifesto

Das Kapital

Question 3

What did Marxist literature say about society?

Answer 3

Outlined a historical materialist view of society, proposing that history inevitably transitions through a number of stages of economic development.

Society inevitably progressed from feudalism to capitalism and will eventually move to communism through a proletarian revolution

Question 4

What do revolutionary socialists argue is inherent to capitalism?

Answer 4

Class oppression of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie - created deep inequalities and suppressed the inherently collaborative and social nature of humans

Question 5

What do revolutionary socialists believe will be inevitably brought about by class oppression?

Answer 5

Inevitable that this oppression will lead the proletariat to seize control of the state and economy in a violent revolution

After seizing control, the working class would and should fundamentally change society, with a commitment to collectivism, common humanity and equality

Eventually, after a brief period of ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’, the state would ‘wither away’ where the final stage of society will be reached (classless, stateless)

Question 6

Six key principles of socialism

Answer 6

Collectivism
Common humanity
Equality
Social class
Workers’ control
Opposition to capitalism

Question 7

Define collectivism

Answer 7

Socialism argues that the collective action of individuals is of greater moral and practical value to society than individual effort

Question 8

Define common humanity

Answer 8

Socialism emphasises that humans are social creatures with positive tendencies towards cooperation, sociability and rationality.

Question 9

Define equality

Answer 9

Equality is perhaps the most important driving principle of socialism. Socialists argue that economic inequality is fundamentally unfair and undermines collectivism and cooperation. As a result, the state should act to pursue equality.

Question 10

Define social class

Answer 10

This is central to socialists’ understanding of society. It underpins their analysis of social dynamics and historical change. They believe that class exploitation is inherent to capitalism and should be abolished

Question 11

Define workers’ control

Answer 11

This principle advocates for both worker control over the management of the workplace and worker control over broader economic decision-making and the state (through common ownership)

Question 12

Define opposition to capitalism

Answer 12

Opposition to capitalism and the perception of it as a fundamentally flawed system form the bedrock of socialist ideology. Socialists view capitalism as inherently exploitative, a system where profit motive and private ownership of the means of production lead to stark social class divisions and deep-seated inequalities.

Question 13

Examples of Marxist historical materialism not following Marx’s model

Answer 13

Marx and Engels predicted that the first socialist revolutions would take place in Germany or Britain by the end of the 19th century, as it was in these countries that industrial capitalism was most advanced.

However, the most significant socialist revolutions occurred later in the primarily feudal societies of Russia and China

Question 14

The Soviet Union as an example of the principles of revolutionary socialism

Answer 14

The Bolsheviks overthrew the capitalist Provisional Government and quickly went about nationalising all industries

Lenin used the concept of ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ to justify using terror (through the Cheka/secret police)

Stalin introduced the first Five Year Plan (a programme of rapid industrialisation) in 1928

Enforced collectivisation of farms

Question 15

China as an example of the principles of revolutionary socialism

Answer 15

Mao adapted Marxist theory to focus mainly on the peasantry as the main force of revolution, rather than the urban proletariat

Agrarian Reform Law of 1950 reflected socialist principles of workers’ control by abolishing feudal land ownership and redistributing land

First Five Year Plan in 1953 sought to rapidly industrialise the economy

CCP retained tight control over the economy and political life (state did not ‘wither away’)

Question 16

Explain the emergence of evolutionary socialism

Answer 16

Emerged in the 20th century as form of revisionism. Questioned some key elements of revolutionary socialist thought, including the principle that a revolution was necessary

Question 17

Strands of socialism on the spec

Answer 17

Revolutionary socialism

Social democracy

Third Way

(can talk about evolutionary socialism but not too much - don’t focus on it)

Question 18

Evidence of evolutionary socialism questioning need for revolution

Answer 18

Sidney Webb - ‘inevitability of gradualism’

ESs advocated for legal changes and the use of existing political institutions to transform society towards socialism - more stable than revolutionary alternatives

Question 19

Key figure in evolutionary socialist movement

Answer 19

Eduard Bernstein - advocated socialism through democratic and parliamentary means

Question 20

Similarities between evolutionary and revolutionary socialists

Answer 20

Evolutionary socialists sought to achieve absolute equality, workers’ control and the elimination of social class (however, they thought we should do this through incremental legislative and social reforms, rather than a revolution)

Question 21

Evidence that Beatrice Webb supported socialism through democratic means

Answer 21

Key figure in the establishment of the Labour Party, which sought to transition society towards socialism through democratic means

Question 22

How can we explain the differences between revolutionary and evolutionary socialists in terms of how to achieve socialism?

Answer 22

For evolutionary socialists, it was conceivable that socialism could come about through democratic means as the working class was able to vote. This was not possible in the time of revolutionary socialist writing.

Question 23

Why did Rosa Luxemburg oppose evolutionary socialism? (link to importance of class)

Answer 23

Argued that evolutionary socialism abandoned the class struggle, which she saw as essential for overthrowing capitalism and establishing a true socialist society

Question 24

Explain the emergence of social democracy

Answer 24

Emerged in the mid-20th century as a distinct strand of socialist through, adapting to the changing political and economic landscape of post-war Europe

Partly driven by the decline of traditional industries . Class system had become more complex than ‘proletariat’ and ‘bourgeoisie’ (new classes like managerial and professional classes emerged)

Standard of living increased - in ‘Futures of Socialism’, Crosland acknowledged this (‘the ordinary worker lives at what even two decades ago would have been considered in Britain a middle-class standard of life’)

Question 25

Principles of social democracy

Answer 25

Retained core socialist principles such as equality, common humanity and workers’ control, but sought to realise these goals within the framework of the capitalist system (e.g. supporting progressive taxation and extensive welfare state provisions) - humanising capitalism!

Moved away from absolute equality, instead advocating equality of opportunity and some equality of outcome

Question 26

The emergence of which economic system coincided with the rise of social democracy?

Answer 26

Keynesianism - advocates for government intervention in the economy to stimulate demand and maintain full employment

In ‘Futures of Socialism’, Crosland argued that the goals of socialism could be achieved in a capitalist society through Keynesianism, redistribution of resources and extensive public services - argued capitalism had changed and that absolute equality was now less important than equality of opportunity

Question 27

Britain in the 1960s as an example of social democracy in practice

Answer 27

Mixed economy - state controlled key sectors of the economy (e.g. coal, water, railways, steel). Allowed capitalism in the remainder of the economy. Keynesian economic management implemented.

Commitment to some level of equality of outcome seen by the fact that the top rate of income tax was 83%

Education received particular focus as a means of promoting equality of opportunity (Crosland’s tirade about grammar schools)

Question 28

Criticisms of social democracy

Answer 28

Some socialists rejected the shift towards social democracy as they thought that it betrayed the core principles of socialism - by accommodating elements of capitalism, SD fails to address the inherent class exploitations and inequality within the capitalist system

Split became increasingly evident during Michael Foot’s leadership of the Labour Party in the early 1980s - his 1983 manifesto was a clear rejection of the notion that socialism could coexist with capitalist structures

Question 29

Explain the emergence of the Third Way

Answer 29

Emerged in the late 20th century, supported finding a middle ground between laissez faire capitalism and social democracy

Question 30

Principles of the Third Way

Answer 30

Privatisation and the free market were accepted, but the state was used to mitigate its worst effects and promote equality of opportunity for all

No longer supported workers’ control (Clause IV), collectivism, the focus on social class, redistribution of wealth or equality of outcome

Question 31

Explain the rejection of the Third Way by socialists

Answer 31

Almost all socialists fundamentally reject the Third Way, arguing that it does not adhere to any of the core principles of socialism (should not be classified as socialism at all)

Focus on equality of opportunity rather than equality of outcome fails to address the inherent inequalities produced by capitalism

Question 32

Explain New Labour as the principles of the Third Way in practice

Answer 32

Maintenance of a 40% top rate of income tax - signals a move away from equality of outcome (reflects the fact that 3W is comfortable with wealth accumulation - rejects equality of outcome through wealth redistribution)

Blair’s administration actively advocated privatisation, introducing PFIs (private finance initiatives) in public sector projects

Promoted equality of opportunity through initiatives like the introduction of the National Minimum Wage and the expansion of access to HE

Question 33

What is the belief in collectivism based upon?

Answer 33

Based on the belief that the needs and well-being of the community or society as a whole should take precedence over individual interests

Question 34

How does collectivism link to human nature?

Answer 34

Socialists believe that the inherent nature of humans is sociable and cooperative

They believe that collectivism allows for the full realisation of human nature, which they see as inherently cooperative and communal - the competitive, individualistic ethos enforced by capitalism is a distortion of humanity’s true nature

Question 35

How does collectivism link to the principle of fraternity?

Answer 35

Fraternity emphasises the importance of mutual aid, shared responsibilities and communal bonds. This perspective of human nature asserts that people are at their best and most fulfilled when working collaboratively for the common good, rather than competing against each other

Question 36

Why do socialists support collectivism in a practical sense?

Answer 36

It is the most efficient way to harness and distribute society’s resources. By pooling resources and efforts, collectivism is seen as a means to ensure that the capabilities and assets of each individual is effectively used

Question 37

How does support for trade unions link to collectivism?

Answer 37

The socialist support for trade unions is a clear manifestation of collectivist principles in action as they are seen as essential for empowering workers collectively, allowing them to negotiate more effectively as they could as individuals

Practical example of how the combined strength of a group can be beneficial to all of its members

Question 38

How does collectivism link to how the state should operate?

Answer 38

The commitment to collectivism in society supports the expansion of the state, accompanied by an increase in state services and spending.

Generally advocate for a strong, active state that can coordinate large-scale economic activities and social policies - leads to significant state involvement in welfare services. This is underpinned by the view that such services should be provided collectively, rather than purchased individually

Question 39

What is the revolutionary socialist stance on collectivism?

Answer 39

Central to revolutionary socialism is the desire to restructure society into one characterised by complete collectivism

In this envisioned society, the state as a governing apparatus is dissolved due to the natural human tendency to cooperate (‘withers away’)

This will lead to a society in which resources are redistributed and each individual contributes according to their abilities and receives according to their means

Question 40

Explain how collectivism is seen by revolutionary socialists as a vital means to abolish class struggle

Answer 40

Collective action by the proletariat is the only way that society can be transformed in the way it needs to be

Luxemburg emphasised the power of mass action and workers’ solidarity as essential tools for overthrowing the capitalist system. Her advocacy for general strikes and mass political mobilisation reinforces the idea that collective effort is vital.

Question 41

Explain Social Democracy’s attitude to collectivism

Answer 41

Less radical than revs - seeks to reform and humanise capitalism rather than abolish it. Moves away from complete collectivism, but believe in pursuing it within capitalism.

Would do so by encouraging the state to provide extensive welfare services and intervene in the economy, as this involves managing resources to support the whole community

Support nationalisation, with key industries being run by the state in the interests of society as a whole

Strong supporters of trade unionism

Question 42

Explain the Third Way’s attitude to collectivism

Answer 42

Moved away from collectivism - focuses instead on individual opportunity

Far less emphasis on the state’s role in managing the economy for collective welfare

Giddens argued that the focus should not be on economic management to benefit the collective, but instead on equipping individuals to thrive in the market economy

Question 43

Evidence of Blair’s government moving away from collectivism

Answer 43

Maintained top rate of income tax at 40%, a legacy of Thatcherism

Expanded privatisation (which is literally the opposite of collectivisation)

Reduced role and influence of the trade unions - signalled move away from focus on collective endeavour

Question 44

Marx quote on common humanity

Answer 44

‘The human essence is no abstraction inherent in each single individual. In reality, it is the ensemble of the social relations.’ - demonstrates view that human nature can only be understood with reference to society

Question 45

How does common humanity justify state intervention?

Answer 45

Justifies state intervention in order to shape society in a way that will allow the inherently cooperative, sociable and rational attributes of human nature to flourish

Question 46

How does common humanity link to human nature?

Answer 46

It is a very positive, yet non-individualistic view of HN - portrays humans as inherently cooperative, sociable and rational

Sees humans as being motivated not by material self-improvement, but by the betterment of society as a whole

Sees fullest expression of individual potential as deeply connected to the welfare of the community

Question 47

How does common humanity assert the malleability of human nature?

Answer 47

HN is shaped by the economic systems in which people live - the competitive attitudes promoted by capitalism are not expressions of true HN

By altering the social and economic structures, humans can realise their true, positive HN

Question 48

Revolutionary socialist view on common humanity

Answer 48

RSs view of HN is deeply influenced by common humanity - see humans as inherently cooperative, but capitalism has distorted this (Luxemburg argued that capitalism divides workers and communities in a constant battle for economic survival)

Advocate for complete abolition of the capitalist system so true common humanity can fully emerge

Question 49

Social Democrats’ view on common humanity

Answer 49

Share belief with RSs in common humanity and the intrinsic positive nature of humans

Acknowledges challenges inherent in capitalism (e.g income inequality, exploitation etc), but argued that this can be mitigated through Keynesianism, a mixed economy, extensive welfare programmes and redistribution of wealth (allows positive aspects of HN to flourish even within a capitalist framework)

Question 50

Third Way’s view of common humanity

Answer 50

Maintains positive view of HN, recognising the capacity for sociability and communal responsibility. However, combines this with individualism

Do not view capitalism as a fundamental problem distorting HN - advocate for a balance, believing that community and cooperation can thrive in a market economy

Does not see radical overhaul of the economy and society as necessary to shape HN - instead take the view that providing people with the tools for personal development can enable them to realise their potential

Aim to cultivate a society in which individual aspirations and communal well-being are not mutually exclusive

Question 51

What do socialists in general assert about equality?

Answer 51

Inequalities are not only unjust but also a product of structural inequalities embedded within capitalist systems (not individual differences in ability or effort) - leads to strong advocacy for redistributive policies

Socialists share a strong belief that society can be greatly improved through state action to address inequality

Economic equality is essential for fostering a sense of collectivism and nurturing a cooperative human nature

The vision of a more equitable society aligns with the socialist ideal of common ownership of the means of production

Question 52

Revolutionary socialist view of equality

Answer 52

Advocate for absolute equality - eradication of all forms of class distinctions and inequalities in wealth and power

Marx - this can only be achieved by overthrowing the capitalist system, which he sees as the cause of inequality

To achieve absolute equality, RSs advocate for collective ownership of the means of production

The end goal is a classless, stateless society - in such a society, the distinctions that drive social equality, like class, wealth and power, would cease to exist, thus creating absolute equality

‘From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs’ - resources and power distributed in such a way that it creates absolute equality

Question 53

Social democrat view of equality

Answer 53

Reject absolute equality and the complete abolition of capitalism - seek to promote equality of opportunity and some equality of outcome by reforming and humanising capitalism

Everyone should have a fair chance to succeed - Crosland’s introduction of comprehensive education, which aimed to provide a similar quality of education to all students

Also pursue equality of opportunity through ensuring that all citizens have access to a basic level of welfare

Some equality of outcome - progressive taxation (83% under Wilson). Reflects belief in role of state in reducing economic disparities

Question 54

Third Way view of equality

Answer 54

Support equality of opportunity alone - e.g. Blair said his 3 key priorities as PM would be ‘education, education, education’

Acceptance of accumulation of wealth - as long as there is equality of opportunity, inequality in outcome is acceptable (or even desirable, seen as a reflection of individual effort)

e.g. top rate of income tax under Blair was 40%

Do not see capitalism as fundamentally flawed - see market liberalism and as consistent with social justice and equality.

Question 55

How do socialists define class?

Answer 55

Class is primarily defined by one’s relationship with the means of production (whether you own the means of production, or if you work for those who do)

Question 56

Revolutionary socialist view of social class

Answer 56

View class as a binary system of class domination based on the division of capital and labour

This exploitation is central to the capitalist system - for Marx, this leads to inevitable class conflict

Aim to aid the working class in achieving class consciousness (awareness of collective identity and shared interests in opposition to the bourgeoisie) - Communist Manifesto, ‘workers of the world, unite!)

RevSocs like Rosa Luxemburg emphasised the role of trade unionism in overcoming false consciousness (obscured understanding of exploitation under capitalism)

Class conflict = embedded in the state, which directly served the bourgeoisie (superstructure)

Existing state needs to be removed and capitalism overthrown

Question 57

Explain Marx and Engel’s Dialectic ( in terms of social class)

Answer 57

History of society = history of class struggle (these are inevitable and driven by material conditions)

Question 58

Social democrat view of class

Answer 58

View class as a significant factor in understanding and addressing social divisions

Recognise class as central to the structure of society, but do not perceive it in binary terms (more complex, e.g. development of new classes, rather than oppressor vs oppressed)

Do not seek to completely abolish class divisions, but rather focus on creating a more equitable society within the capitalist framework

Aim to ensure that one’s class background does not dictate their opportunities

Advocate for a certain degree of redistribution

Question 59

Third Way view of class

Answer 59

Sought to transcend class divisions rather than advocating for the working class

Giddens argued that in the modern globalised world, the class distinctions of the industrial age have become less relevant

Contrast w/ revsocs who say that history can be explained in terms of class - Giddens says factors like gender, ethnicity and age play more significant roles in social stratification now

Moved away from traditional welfare models to those that encouraged personal responsibility (e.g. Working Families Tax Credit)

Balances individual autonomy with a supportive role for the state - Gidden’s ‘radical centre’ approach, which blends market liberalism with social justice (emphasising that equipping individuals to navigate a changing world is crucial) - shows shifting focus on adapting to new realities rather than the traditional class based view

Question 60

Revolutionary socialist view of workers’ control

Answer 60

Advocate for complete workers’ control over economy and state

Existing state under capitalism is fundamentally designed to serve the interests of the bourgeoisie (Marx’s superstructure)

Marx, ComManif - ‘the executive of the modern state is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie’

State cannot be transformed, but must be overthrown and restructured - in new state, proletariat hold political power and the means of production

Luxemburg advocated for a revolution deeply rooted in the spontaneous and direct action of the working class (e.g. mass strikes) to seize control of means of production

Question 61

Social democrat view of workers’ control

Answer 61

Do not advocate for complete control by workers of both economy and state

Support nationalisation/common ownership of key industries (e.g. Britain in 1960s)

Crosland - balanced approach can achieve social justice and equality of opportunity without the need for upheaval

Preserve role for capitalism (e.g. wd reject workers control of factories)

Question 62

Examples of Wilson’s 1960s policies that facilitated collective bargaining?

Answer 62

1965 Trade Unions Act - removed signiifcnt legal restrictions on unions

Question 63

Third Way view of workers’ control

Answer 63

Fundamentally rejects concept of workers’ control

Did not support nationalisation - favoured privatisation as a means to increase efficiency (e.g. PFIs)

Giddens emphasised that privatised enterprises are more responsive to market conditions

New Labour removed Clause IV - complete rejection of workers’ control

Question 64

Key agreements between socialists in terms of the state

Answer 64

The state should intervene in the economy to promote equality and tackle the failures of capitalism

Question 65

Key tensions between socialists in terms of the state

Answer 65

Extent of workers’ control of the state

The extent to which the state should intervene in the economy

Whether collectivism should be pursued

Whether the capitalist state should be overthrown in a revolution or expanded through evolutionary socialism

Question 66

Key agreements between socialists in terms of the economy

Answer 66

That capitalism is a flawed economic system that produces inequality and class divisions

The economy should be restructured to pursue equality

Question 67

Key tensions between socialists in terms of the economy

Answer 67

Whether capitalism should be completely eradicated, managed or accepted

The extent to which workers’ control of the economy should be promoted

The extent to which collectivism should be promoted

What kind of equality should be promoted

Question 68

Key agreements between socialists in terms of society

Answer 68

Society should be restructured to pursue equality

Capitalism creates class division in society

Question 69

Key tensions between socialists in terms of society

Answer 69

Whether collectivism and workers’ control within society should be promoted

What kind of social equality should be promoted

Whether class exploitation are inherent to society under capitalism

Question 70

Key agreements between socialists in terms of human nature

Answer 70

Support for common humanity - humans are inherently cooperative, sociable and rational

Human nature is not static; it is malleable and shaped by the societal and economic systems in which people live

Question 71

Key tensions between socialists in terms of human nature

Answer 71

Whether common humanity can be realised within the capitalist system

The role of collectivism within human nature

Question 72

Key thinker: Marx/Engels

Answer 72

Centrality of social class:
Communist Manifesto - ‘the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles’, ‘workers of the world, unite!’

Oppression of capitalism:
Engels, ‘Principles of Communism’ - ‘the proletarian can free himself only by abolishing private property’

State = ‘superstructure’:
Communist Manifesto - ‘the executive of the modern state is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie’

Classless, stateless society = necessary:
‘From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs’

Humans as social beings:
Theses on Feuerbach - ‘the human essence is no abstraction inherent in each single individual. In reality, it is the ensemble of the social relations.’

Question 73

Key thinker: Beatrice Webb

Answer 73

Her ideas influenced social democracy

‘The inevitability of gradualness’ - disagreed w/ revolutionary socialists about the necessity of a revolution (supported idea that socialism can be achieved through democratic means)

Believed revolutions were ‘chaotic, inefficient and counter-productive’

Advocated the expansion of the state to serve the needs of the proletariat

Question 74

Key thinker: Rosa Luxemburg

Answer 74

Strongly rejected evolutionary/revisionist socialism - believed in the necessity of revolution to overthrow capitalism

Collectivism - stressed the importance of collective endeavour by arguing for a revolution that was deeply rooted in the spontaneous and direct action of the working class

Question 75

Key thinker: Anthony Crosland

Answer 75

‘Marx has little or nothing to offer the contemporary socialist’

Equality of opportunity - establishment of comprehensive ed system

Socialism within a capitalist framework - believed that capitalism could be managed in order to pursue equality through Keynesianism

Did not support unbridled capitalism - support for a mixed economy, where key industries are nationalised and there is a strong welfare system, but other elements of the economy are capitalist

Question 76

Key thinker: Anthony Gidden

Answer 76

Rejection of state intervention - argued that in the context of a modern, globalised economy, market intervention = no longer effective.

Did not view capitalism as a fundamentally flawed system that required radical overhaul

Instead of investing in a large welfare state, the state should use the tax generated from economic growth (facilitated by capitalism) to create opportunity - e.g. investing in education

Community > class conflict - society should not be interpreted as a binary struggle between the bourgeoisie and proletariat (fundamental rejection of dialectical materialism) . Instead, the focus should be on fostering a sense of community and encouraging social cohesion (rather than encouraging class conflict)