Social Welfare & Reforms Flashcards
What was common in reports and surveys of poverty in the 1800s?
They relied on anecdotal, qualitative evidence, often reinforcing old beliefs about poverty (deserving/undeserving poor
How did attitudes toward poverty shift in the late 1800s?
People saw poverty as a problem to be solved by state intervention, addressing its causes.
How did investigations change by 1900?
They used quantitative methods and redefined poverty based on minimum living standards.
Why was Mayhew’s methodology criticized?
It was not systematic, relied on unreliable statistics, and focused on marginal occupations, exaggerating poverty in London.
Who was Charles Booth?
A wealthy entrepreneur who rejected the COS (Charity Organization Society) view that poverty was due to personal failings.
How did Booth conduct his investigation?
He studied poverty in London, starting with the East End, Employed 35 researchers, most of whom were university-educated, to conduct door-to-door interviews.
Research lasted 17 years Findings were published in Life and Labour of the People of London (1903)
What were Charles Booth’s social classes?
A (0.9%) - “Dregs of society”: Semi-criminals, loafers, idlers, occasional workers.
• B (7.5%) - Casual, low-paid workers (e.g., dockers with no job security).
• C - Slightly better off than class B but still faced job instability.
• D - Low-income workers with stable jobs, able to budget for survival.
• E/F (51.5%) - Regular employment, leading to comfortable lives.
• G/H (17.8%) - Lower and upper-middle classes.
Why were Booth’s findings not reliable?
Relied on observations rather than precise data.
• Helen Bosanquet of COS criticized his use of surveys, arguing they underestimated income and lacked a solid philosophical basis.
• His researchers often relied on teachers’ opinions rather than direct household data.
Why were Booth’s findings reliable?
Based on a very large amount of data (17 volumes).
• The investigation was thorough, using detailed poverty maps.
• Investigators sometimes lived in poor areas to understand conditions.
Who was Rowntree and what influenced his views?
A Quaker businessman who believed ethical treatment of workers led to better productivity.
• Implemented minimum wages, family allowances, and pensions for his workers.
• Conducted three major poverty studies in York (1899, 1941, 1951)
How did Rowntree conduct his study?
Focused on working-class families, studying 11,560 households (about 2/3 of York’s population).
• Used a full-time investigator who made home visits and gathered information from clergy, teachers, and volunteers.
• Published findings in Poverty: A Study of Town Life (1903)
What did Rowntree find?
28% of York’s population lived in poverty
Poverty Line:
• Determined that a family needed 21 shillings per week to survive.
• 10% lived in primary poverty (no way to make ends meet).
• 18% lived in secondary poverty (barely surviving, with no room for emergencies).
• Poverty Cycle: Showed that poverty was most likely at three life stages:
• Childhood (dependence on parents).
• Couples with young children (higher expenses, low wages).
• Old age (reduced earning ability, lack of pensions)
Why were Rowntree’s findings not reliable?
Helen Bosanquet of COS criticized him for overestimating poverty by setting his poverty line too high.
• Findings were based mainly on observation, which could be subjective.
Why were Rowntree’s findings reliable?
Used consistent criteria (e.g., primary/secondary poverty).
• Based on detailed data from 2/3 of York, making it representative.
What was the Fabian Society, and when was it founded?
The Fabian Society was a socialist intellectual think tank formed in 1884. It aimed to advance socialism gradually through research, lobbying, and policy influence rather than revolutionary means.
What were the Fabian Society’s core beliefs and methods?
The Fabian Society believed in a slow and peaceful transition to socialism. They held meetings, published pamphlets, and lobbied politicians, emphasizing Poor Law reform, minimum wage laws, and international alliances
What role did Sidney and Beatrice Webb play in the Fabian Society?
Sidney and Beatrice Webb were key Fabian Society members who developed rigorous research methodologies. Their Minority Report to the Poor Law Commission influenced the foundations of the modern welfare state
What reforms did the Fabian Society lobby for?
The Fabian Society lobbied for a minimum wage (1906) to prevent wage cuts, a universal health service (1911) to maintain a healthy workforce, and imperialism as a basis for British foreign policy to sustain Britain’s global dominance
How did the Fabian Society view the Boer War (1899-1902)?
The Fabian Society supported Britain in the Boer War but was concerned about the poor health of British soldiers. They proposed a citizen army, universal healthcare, and physical training to improve national defense.
How did the Fabian Society contribute to the formation of the Labour Party?
The Fabian Society was involved in the 1900 Labour Representation Committee (LRC), which later became the Labour Party. By 1906, 26 LRC-sponsored candidates won seats in Parliament, establishing Labour as a political force
What impact did the Fabian Society have on education?
In 1895, the London School of Economics (LSE) was founded by Fabian Society members, including Sidney Webb and George Bernard Shaw, to promote research and study of socialist economics.
What was the significance of the Boer War in British social reform?
The Boer War exposed widespread poor health among recruits—up to 2/3 were unfit for service. This led to concerns about national efficiency, contributing to demands for social reform, including free school meals and medical inspections
What was the Interdepartmental Committee on Physical Deterioration (1903-04)?
The committee investigated claims that Britain’s population was physically declining. While it found no evidence of overall deterioration, it highlighted poverty, ignorance, and neglect as major public health concerns and recommended improvements in healthcare, hygiene, and nutrition.
What was the “debate on national efficiency,” and how did it shape policy?
The debate arose from Britain’s economic decline compared to the USA and Germany. Some argued that military weakness was the main issue, while Sidney Webb and others linked economic recovery to social reform, influencing policies like minimum living standards and public health initiatives.
What were the key recommendations of the interdepartmental committee of physical deterioration?
It made 53 recommendations including;
➢ Changes to public health administration,
➢ Improving the standard of public health provision,
➢ Introducing new methods of monitoring the health of the people,
➢ Improving standards of personal hygiene.
➢ medical inspections and free school meals for the very poor
What was the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws (1905-1909), and why was it established?
The Royal Commission was set up by the Conservative government in 1905 to investigate the workings of the Poor Laws and suggest ways to relieve poverty. It included a range of experts, such as Poor Law guardians, members of the Charity Organisation Society (COS), and social researchers like Charles Booth and the Webbs
How was the 1905-09 Royal Commission different from previous investigations into poverty?
Unlike the 1832-34 Commission, this one was more detailed and wide-ranging, analyzing 900 written statements, visiting 200 Poor Law Unions, and interviewing 450 witnesses. Its members were better qualified and had modern views on poverty.
What were the two key reports produced by the Royal Commission?
The Majority Report recommended reforming the Poor Law but maintaining some elements. The Minority Report, led by the Webbs, called for a complete overhaul of the Poor Law, replacing it with state-run services
What did both the Majority and Minority Reports agree on?
The existing Poor Law system, calling it outdated and ineffective.
• The inconsistency of Poor Law Guardians, as different areas had different policies.
• The continuation of mixed workhouses, which housed different types of poor together.
• The overlap of Poor Law services with local government boards, leading to inefficiency.
What did the Minority Report argue was the main cause of poverty?
Poverty was primarily an economic issue, not just a result of individual failure
What government department did the Minority Report propose, and how would it help the unemployed?
A Ministry of Labour to:
• Oversee public work schemes to provide jobs.
• Establish national labour exchanges to match workers with jobs.
• Organize training schemes to improve skills
How did the minority report propose dealing with people who refused to work?
It suggested detention colonies for those considered deliberately idle to reform them.
How did the minority report propose replacing the Poor Law?
By breaking it up into:
• Education committees for the elderly poor.
• Health committees for the sick and infirm poor
How did the report suggest social welfare should be managed?
By central government oversight instead of local Poor Law authorities
What did the Majority Report argue was the main cause of poverty?
Poverty was primarily a moral issue, caused by individual behavior rather than economic factors
What did the Majority Report recommend as the main system for dealing with poverty?
The Poor Law should remain the primary method of poverty relief
What changes did the report propose to improve the Poor Law system?
Boards of guardians were too lenient and should be replaced by public assistance committees.
• General mixed workhouses failed to deter the able-bodied poor and needed reform
How did the majority report suggest improving support for the poor?
By increasing cooperation between charities and the Poor Law, including setting up voluntary aid committees to assist with relief efforts
What key principles did the Royal Commission establish for welfare reform in the 20th century?
Poverty was not always the fault of the poor.
• The government should take responsibility for improving conditions for the poorest in society
What changes did the Royal Commission propose for the Poor Law system?
Poor Law Unions and Boards of Guardians should be abolished.
• They should be replaced by Public Assistance Committees, which would work closely with local voluntary agencies
What did the 1908 Old Age Pensions Act provide, and who was eligible?
weekly pensions of 5s per week for a single person and 7s 6d for a couple, funded by the government. It was for those over 70 with an income below £21 a year, who had been British citizens for 20+ years, not been in prison for 10 years, were not drunkards, and could prove they had worked all their life
What were the successes and limitations of the 1908 Old Age Pensions Act?
Successes: ~600,000 people claimed; it reduced the stigma of poor relief; Lloyd George became popular.
Limitations: Did not reduce elderly workhouse numbers; 5s was too little to live on
What were Labour Exchanges, and why were they introduced?
1909
Labour exchanges (like job centres) were created to help unemployed workers find jobs more easily instead of walking from workplace to workplace
What were the successes and limitations of Labour Exchanges?
Successes: By 1914, 450 labour exchanges had been set up in England & Wales
Limitations: They were voluntary (employers didn’t have to use them), and did not create new jobs
What did the 1909 Trade Boards Act do?
It set up boards in ‘sweated trades’ (e.g. lace-making, tailoring) to negotiate and set minimum wages
What were the successes and limitations of the Trade Boards Act?
Successes: Helped 200,000 workers in low-paid industries, setting a precedent for wage regulation.
❌ Limitations: The Act did not define what a minimum wage should be
What did the first part of the 1911 National Insurance Act provide?
introduced sickness insurance for workers earning under £160 a year. Workers contributed 4d per week, employers 3d, and the government 2d. It provided 10s per week for 13 weeks if sick and 5s per week for another 13 weeks
What were the successes and limitations of the sickness insurance scheme?
Successes: By 1913, 13 million workers were insured, creating an important safety net.
❌ Limitations: Flat-rate contributions hit the poorest hardest, and medical care didn’t cover workers’ families
What did the second part of the 1911 National Insurance Act do?
provided unemployment insurance for workers in seasonal industries (e.g. shipbuilding, engineering). Workers, employers, and the government each contributed 2.5d per week. If unemployed, workers could claim 7s per week for up to 15 weeks
What were the successes and limitations of the unemployment insurance scheme?
Successes: By 1912, 2.25 million men were insured, and it established the idea that poverty relief was a national responsibility.
Limitations: Hard to assess impact due to high employment before WWI.
