Social Stratification - not done

Question 1

What is social stratification?

Answer 1

• Social stratification describes the way society is structured into a hierarchy of unequal strata or layers
• Stratification involves inequality between groups in the distribution of resources such as wealth, income, status and power
• A social hierarchy is shaped like a pyramid and each layer is more powerful than the one below it
• The most privileged group in society forms the top layer and the least privileged form the bottom layer
• The group at the top of the hierarchy has much more wealth, income, status or power than the one at the bottom

Question 2

What is social inequality?

Answer 2

Social inequality refers to the uneven distribution of:

• resources such as money and power
• opportunities (or life chances) related to things like education or employment

Question 3

What do studies of inequality explore?

Answer 3

• the nature and extent of inequality
• why some people get more resources and opportunities than others
• how resources and opportunities are unequal between individuals and groups based on their social class, gender, ethnicity and age

Question 4

What is wealth?

Answer 4

Ownership of assets, e.g., property, land, shares and money in savings accounts.

Question 5

What is income?

Answer 5

Cash, e.g., from a salary or company benefits such as use of a company car.

Question 6

What is status?

Answer 6

Social standing or rank of an individual in society due to wealth, career or social influence.

Question 7

What is power?

Answer 7

The ability of an individual or group to get what they want despite opposition from others, e.g., getting a law passed.

Question 8

What is the main form of stratification in the UK today?

Answer 8

• In the UK today, social class is seen as the main form of stratification
• Social class is based on economic factors such as occupation and income

Question 9

What percentage of people in the UK are upper, middle and working class?

Answer 9

• upper class - 10% (most power, income, wealth + status)
• middle class - 50%
• working + underclass - 40% (least power, income, wealth + status)

Question 10

How do stratification systems differ?

Answer 10

• Stratification systems differ depending on whether a person’s status is ascribed or achieved
• Stratification systems also differ according to how open and closed they are, i.e., how easily social mobility can occur

Question 11

What is ascribed status?

Answer 11

social position is fixed at birth and is unchanging over time, such as being born into the royal family

Question 12

What is achieved status?

Answer 12

social position is earned based on personal talent or merit, such as getting all 9s in your GCSEs, which is based on ability and effort

Question 13

What is an open system?

Answer 13

An individual’s position is achieved and social mobility can occur, e.g., between social classes

Question 14

What is a closed system?

Answer 14

An individual’s position is ascribed and social mobility is less likely to occur, e.g., the caste system in India

Question 15

What is slavery (as a stratification system)?

Answer 15

• Slavery existed as a form of stratification by race in Ancient Greece, Rome and the southern states of America in the 19th century
• Under slavery, white slave owners claimed the right to own black slaves and treated them as property (or chattel)
• An individual’s social position was ascribed at birth, so children born to slaves were automatically slaves too; the system was closed
• The racial stratification of Americans continued through segregation laws, which were abolished in 1964 in America due to the Civil Rights Movement

Question 16

What is feudalism?

Answer 16

• The feudal system operated in medieval Europe as a form of stratification
• There were four layers in society called estates
• Everybody in the community pledged loyalty to the king, whose power was regarded as God-given
• An individual’s position in society was ascribed and there was little or no chance of moving up to the next estate; the system was closed
• It was unthinkable for people from different estates or social classes to get married

Question 17

What is the caste system in traditional India?

Answer 17

• The caste system in India is another form of stratification linked to the Hindu religion
• An individual’s social position is ascribed at birth, as people are born into a particular caste; the system is closed
• Each caste was traditionally associated with particular occupations
• Inequality between different groups was justified as stemming from religious beliefs

Question 18

What was the Apartheid?

Answer 18

• Apartheid in South Africa (1948–1994) was based on a government policy of racial segregation
• Ethnicity was used as the basis for stratification
• A person’s social position was ascribed at birth so the system was closed as there was little scope for social mobility
• Because apartheid existed in every sphere of society, a person’s access to jobs, housing, healthcare, and education was segregated based on their race

Question 19

What is the key study for the Functionalist Theory of Social Stratification?

Answer 19

Davis & Moore (1945)

Question 20

What do Davis & Moore (1945) believe about social stratification?

Answer 20

• American functionalist sociologists Davis + Moore argue that all societies are stratified and have social inequality
• They believed that role allocation was needed for society to survive and operate efficiently
• Some positions are functionally more important for society than others, as they provide essential services and ensure society’s survival over time (e.g. doctors, surgeons, dentists, lawyers and judges)
• These functionally important roles require people with exceptional talent, skills and abilities, which only a minority of individuals have (they undertake lengthy and costly education and training, which involves making sacrifices)
• To attract such individuals, these roles must offer desirable rewards, such as high pay + status (an incentive)
• Stratification is functionally necessary for society because it ensures that the most talented people train for and fill the most important jobs
• All societies must have some degree of inequality built into them, which is functional as people accept it as fair

Question 21

What do Davis & Moore believe it is necessary to happen for society to operate effectively?

Answer 21

• all roles must be filled
• they must be filled by those best able to perform them
• effective training must take place for the roles
• roles must be performed conscientiously

Question 22

What are criticisms of Davis & Moore?

Answer 22

• Occupations which carry less prestige or lower economic rewards can also be seen as functionally important to society (E.g. nurses + refuse collectors)
• Differences in status + pay between different occupational groups may be due to differences in their power rather than the functional importance of their position (e.g. MPs who are paid more than nurses)
• There is no evidence that exceptional talent is required for important positions in society or an agreed method of measuring talent and ability (e.g. there is no formal educational requirement for Government ministers)
• There may be far more talented people in society than Davis and Moore indicate - the best way to develop their potential may not be through unequal rewards (e.g. the Prime Minister, for example, is paid far less than the CEO of a typical major corporation)
• Talented people do not necessarily make sacrifices during their training - they can earn back any income lost during the training period in the first 10 years of their work
• Contrary to what David and Moore believe, society is not meritocratic - equal opportunities do not exist and social mobility is not widespread

Question 23

What is a marxist criticism of Davis & Moore?

Answer 23

• Rather than seeing stratification as functional, Marxists view it as a means by which a privileged minority exploit others
• Neither inequality nor stratification is inevitable

Question 24

What is the key study for the Marxist Theory of Social Class?

Answer 24

Marx (1857-1967) - Social class in the 19th century

Question 25

What does Marx believe about social stratification?

Answer 25

• Karl Marx saw social stratification as a mechanism which allows a privileged few (the bourgeoisie) to exploit the many (the proletariat)
• Marx believed that the relationships between social groups and the means of production were the source of stratification systems
• As agriculture developed, it produced surplus wealth and the accumulation of private property
• This led to the emergence of a ruling class (bourgeoisie) that gained control of the means of production + the proletariat sells their labour to the bourgeoisie to survive
• The proletariat experiences alienation under capitalism because they lack control over production and the products of their labour
• Ruling class ideology seeks to justify the exploitation of the proletariats through ideas about competition and the free market
• Marx believed that class struggle was the driving force for social change - over time, the bourgeoisie would get smaller and much richer + the proletariat would get bigger and much poorer
• Marx hoped that this polarisation would produce a proletarian revolution and an ideal communist society in which the class system would disappear - this way capital, land and factories would be owned by the community as a whole

Question 26

What does ruling class ideology do?

Answer 26

• It seeks to justify the exploitation of the proletariats through ideas about competition and the free market
• This distorts reality to create a positive image of capitalism as normal and natural
• This ideology leads to false class consciousness among the proletariat, as they accept this as the status quo

Question 27

What is alienation?

Answer 27

the process through which a person becomes isolated/disconnected from their own culture or society

Question 28

What is false class consciousness?

Answer 28

The idea that people in a capitalist society are unaware of the inequality and exploitation that exists in the system

Question 29

What is an evaluation of Marx’s views on social class?

Answer 29

• Some sociologists believe that his theories still provide the best explanation of the nature of capitalist society
• There are vast differences in the distribution of power and wealth between property owners and workers in contemporary society
• This is the key social division in society, according to contemporary Marxists
• However there are criticisms

Question 30

What are criticisms of Marx’s views on social class?

Answer 30

• Critics argue that Marx’s theories are out of date because capitalist societies like Britain have not undergone a revolution
• This may be due to increased standards of living and the development of the welfare state
• New Right theorists are critical of Marxist theory and emphasise the benefits of capitalism and the opportunities for social mobility
• Feminists argue that Marx and Marxists ignore the divisions in society based on gender and others argue that they neglect ethnicity

Question 31

Which Sociologist built on + disagreed with Marx’s views on social stratification?

Answer 31

Weber - Social class in the late 19th century & early 20th century

Question 32

What does Weber believe about social stratification? + how does this differ from Marx

Answer 32

• Writing in the early 20th century, Weber argued that classes develop depending on an individual’s market situation

-In the labour market, one class of people hired labour and another class sold their labour
-Those who share a similar class situation also share similar life chances
-i.e. the chances of being successful in life and opportunities in education and health

• Like Marx, Weber argued that the major class division lay between those who owned the forces of production and those who did not
• He identified four main social classes, each having a different amount of status, wealth and power
• These different classes have different market situations or life chances in the labour market, which shapes patterns of stratification
• In Weber’s view, a person’s status (prestige) may differ from their class (economic) position, such as:

-members of the aristocracy (Lord or Lady) may not be wealthy property owners but their title gives them status
-A National Lottery millionaire may be very wealthy but lacks status

• Weber differed from Marx in that he saw no evidence to support the polarisation of classes - he argued that the middle class expands rather than contracts as capitalism develops
• He rejected the view that a proletarian revolution was inevitable and that political power derives only from economic power

Question 33

What are the 4 main social classes that Weber identified?

Answer 33

He identified four main social classes, each having a different amount of status, wealth and power:

• property owners
• professionals (e.g. doctors, lawyers, engineers, judges, accountants)
• the petty bourgeoisie (e.g., shopkeepers)
• the working class

Question 34

What are the different market situations/ life chances in the labour market that Weber believed different classes have?

Answer 34

The different classes have different market situations or life chances in the labour market, which shapes patterns of stratification:

• Working-class people shared similar life chances but shared different life chances from property owners
• Professionals had greater life chances than the petty bourgeoisie because of the demand for their services

Members of the same social class:

• enjoyed similar lifestyles
• has similar educational backgrounds
• shared a similar social status to their families

Question 35

What are criticisms of Weber?

Answer 35

• There is a longstanding debate between those sociologists who adopt a Marxist perspective on class and those who follow Weber
• New Right theorists are critical of Weber’s theory view, which is accused of bias and ignores social mobility and opportunities created by capitalist societies
• Feminists argue that Weber ignored the divisions in society based on gender and others argue that they neglect ethnicity

Question 36

Do Marx’s ideas of capitalism still apply in the 21st Century?

Answer 36

• Marx’s theories of class have been updated by contemporary Marxists and applied to the mechanisms of global capitalism in the 21st century
• According to Scambler (2016), a very tiny percentage of people (less than 1%) possess wealth and/or power in this age of financial capitalism
• The power elite that run the state are now more influenced by a small group of global capitalists, such as CEOs and financiers.
• Together, these capitalists and members of the power elite make up a ruling oligarchy (although they control us, they are hardly ever accountable to us)
• Some claim that large multinational corporations (MNCs) have excessive power
• By taking advantage of weaknesses in the tax laws of various nations, these MNCs are able to influence government policy and avoid paying taxes

Question 37

What is an oligarchy?

Answer 37

a small group of powerful individuals who control an organisation or country to further their own interests

Question 38

What is the Registrar General’s classification?

Answer 38

• Social class is seen as the main form of stratification in Britain
• Occupation is often used to measure social class as it is related to factors like pay, social status and life chances
• Subjective class refers to how people see themselves in class terms
• There are three social classes in Britain: the working class, the middle class and the upper class

Question 39

What is the Registrar General’s social class scale?

Answer 39

• The Registrar General’s social class scale was the official class scale in the UK between 1911 and 1998
• It distinguishes between manual and non-manual occupations
• Classes I, II and III (non-manual) were seen as middle class and III (manual), IV and V were seen as working class

Question 40

What are manual occupations?

Answer 40

Manual occupations require some physical effort and can be skilled, semi-skilled or unskilled and are seen as working-class

Question 41

What are non-manual occupations?

Answer 41

Non-manual occupations require no physical effort and include intermediate and professional occupations, which are seen as middle-class

Question 42

What is class I?

Answer 42

Professional occupations, e.g., solicitors and doctors

Question 43

What is class II?

Answer 43

Managerial and technical occupations, e.g., teachers, nurses and pilots

Question 44

What is class III (N)?

Answer 44

Skilled non-manual occupations, e.g. clerical workers, secretaries and receptionists

Question 45

What is class III (M)?

Answer 45

Skilled manual occupations, e.g. bus drivers, electricians and hairdressers

Question 46

What is class IV?

Answer 46

Partly skilled occupations, e.g., postal workers, bar tenders and caretakers

Question 47

What is class V?

Answer 47

Unskilled occupations, e.g., labourers and cleaners

Question 48

What are criticisms of the Registrar General’s scale?

Answer 48

• Measuring social class based on occupation cannot include retired or unemployed people, particularly people who have never worked (although New Right commentators would argue that Britain has an underclass)
• The class position of a family or couple based on a man’s occupation was challenged when more married women went into paid employment in the 1970s
• Occupational class scales reveal nothing about an individual’s inherited wealth or property
• It is unclear where the wealthy upper class or National Lottery millionaires should be placed
• There are vast differences in the wealth, income and status of individuals who have the same job title

Question 49

What is the National Statistics Socio-economic Classification (NS-SEC)?

Answer 49

• The NS-SEC has replaced the Registrar General’s scale as the UK’s official classification
• The NS-SEC is also based on occupation but it includes unemployed people

Question 50

How does the NS-SEC group occupations that have similar what?

Answer 50

It groups occupations that have similar:

• rewards from work such as pay, benefits (e.g. company car), career prospects and job security
• employment status, i.e., employer, employed or self-employed
• levels of authority and control, i.e., responsibility for other workers

Question 51

What is the NS-SEC Class Scale?

Answer 51

1. Higher managerial, administrative and professional occupations, e.g., senior sales managers and solicitors
2. Lower managerial, administrative and professional occupations, e.g., social workers and teachers
3. Intermediate occupations, e.g., secretaries and computer operators
4. Employers in small businesses and own account workers (self-employed), e.g., farmers
5. Lower supervisory and technical occupations, e.g., car mechanics
6. Semi-routine occupations, e.g., cooks, bus drivers and sales assistants
7. Routine occupations, e.g., waiters, clearers, and labourers
8. Never worked and long-term unemployed

Question 52

What are life chances?

Answer 52

Life chances is a theory that refers to the opportunities each individual has to improve their quality of life and share in the rewards of society, for example:

• being healthy
• being wealthy
• having stable employment and housing

Question 53

What is a summary of life chances?

Answer 53

• Life chances are a key concept in studying social inequality and stratification
• Life chances are distributed unequally between groups
• Life chances are shaped by inequalities in wealth, income, power and status

Sociologists disagree on how the different social divisions affect people’s life chances

• Marxists argue that social class in capitalist societies is more significant than factors such as gender or ethnicity
• Feminists see gender inequalities in patriarchal societies as more important

Question 54

How are life chances distributed?

Answer 54

unequally between groups

Question 55

What factors affect life chances?

Answer 55

• class position
• gender
• ethnicity
• age
• sexuality
• disability
• religion

Question 56

What is the overall feminist perspective on life chances?

Answer 56

• Gender describes the different social practices, expectations and ideas that are associated with masculinity and femininity
• Learning of masculinity and femininity is largely influenced by agencies of socialisation like families, schools, and the media.
• They may teach us that girls should be passive, kind and caring, and boys should be active, independent and strong
• Socialisation is a highly gendered process that prepares us for gender-specific social roles like housewife or breadwinner
• Feminist sociologists explore the ways that gender is socially constructed

Question 57

What do feminists believe about gender and power?

Answer 57

• According to feminists, the primary cause of division in today’s society is gender inequality
• Feminists argue that society is organised in a way that benefits men because we live in a patriarchal society
• Statistics show that women are under-represented as holders of political power and decision-makers
• Women are under-represented within the judiciary in England and Wales

Question 58

What are examples of the patriarchal society that feminists argue that we live in?

Answer 58

Feminists argue that society is organised in a way that benefits men because we live in a patriarchal society, which:

• is controlled by men who have considerable power in politics and the workplace
• permits men to have a bigger share of the available rewards, such as wealth and status
• ensures that men have better life chances than women

Question 59

What are examples of women being under-represented as holders of political power and decision-makers?

Answer 59

Statistics show that women are under-represented as holders of political power and decision-makers:

• MPs in the House of Commons are mainly male, white and elite
• After the 2015 General Election, there were 459 male MPs and 191 female MPs
• In 2016, Theresa May became only the second female prime minister
• After the 2024 General Election, however, the number of female MPs increased to 263

Question 60

What is an example of women being under-represented within the judiciary in England and Wales?

Answer 60

• In April 2016, women made up 21% of Court of Appeal judges, 21% of High Court judges and 28% of judges in the courts
• However, there are slightly more female than male court judges under the age of 40

Question 61

What do feminists believe about gender inequalities at work?

Answer 61

• Feminist research explores the links between gender, life chances and social inequality
• Examining gender in the workplace is important
• Changes in education and employment over the last 50 years have taken place in an attempt to achieve gender equality
• These changes are partly linked to the introduction of equality and anti-discrimination laws
• As a result, gender inequalities have reduced since the 1960s and 1970s

Question 62

Why is examining gender in the workplace important?

Answer 62

Examining gender in the workplace is important as:

• it is a source of status, power and income
• women’s participation in the labour market has increased over the last 40 years

Question 63

What are 2 equality and anti-discrimination laws?

Answer 63

• The Equal Pay Act (1970) ensured that employers must pay men and women the same salary for doing the same work or work of equal value
• The Sex Discrimination Act (1975) made it unlawful to discriminate against someone at work or school because of their sex

Question 64

What do feminists believe about inequalities that continue to exist?

Answer 64

• Inequalities persist in the labour market, and gender is still a key division in society
• There is inequality even when men and women work in the same occupation
• Feminists argue that women are held back by a glass ceiling that acts as an invisible barrier to achieving senior positions in their chosen career
• The gender pay gap still exists

Question 65

What are examples of gender inequalities in the labour market?

Answer 65

Inequalities persist in the labour market, and gender is still a key division in society E.g.

• engineering is male-dominated
• childcare and primary school teaching is female-dominated
• 85% of the construction labor workforce in the UK is male (UK Trade Skills Index, 2023)

Question 66

What inequalities are there even when men and women work in the same occupation?

Answer 66

When men and women work in the same occupation

• women are more likely to be in lower or middle-level jobs
• men tend to hold higher-grade and senior management posts

Question 67

What is the gender pay gap?

Answer 67

The gender pay gap is the term used to describe the fact that women still earn, on average, significantly less than men

Question 68

According to the Office for National Statistics (2024), the gender pay gap:

Answer 68

• has been declining slowly over time
• fell among full-time employees in April 2024 to 7% from 7.5% in 2023
• is larger for employees aged over 40 years than those under 40 years
• is larger among high earners than among lower-paid employees

Question 69

What are explanations for gender inequalities at work?

Answer 69

• Sex discrimination within the workplace
• Women’s triple shift
• Childcare provision

Question 70

Why does sex discrimination within the workplace lead to gender inequalities?

Answer 70

• Despite legislation, some women continue to be treated less favourably than men simply because of their gender; this is workplace sexism
• Women are often locked out of informal networking opportunities such as drinks after work with managers, which disadvantages their career progression - they may be passed over for promotion by someone who is often invited out to social events and knows the boss better
• Discrimination against mothers or potential mothers occurs in the workplace

Question 71

What are examples of workplace sexism?

Answer 71

• Male employers may assume that women are too gentle and maternal, thus unsuitable for leadership or management roles
• The employer is more likely to promote a male candidate, assuming they will be more assertive and capable of leading or managing others

Question 72

Why is there discrimination against mothers or potential mothers in the workplace?

Answer 72

• Employers may be reluctant to promote women of child bearing age due to paying them and filling their position during maternity leave
• Mothers are more likely than fathers to request part-time hours, which may be difficult to accommodate in more senior positions

Question 73

Why does women’s triple shift lead to gender inequalities at work?

Answer 73

• Women in paid employment bear the burden of employment, domestic labour, and ‘emotion work’ (Duncombe and Marsden)
• Scott and Clery (2013) argue that gender inequalities in the home make it difficult to achieve equality in the workplace
• Women are more likely than men to work part-time jobs that are low-paid with few promotion opportunities due to caring responsibilities

Question 74

Why does childcare provision lead to gender inequalities at work?

Answer 74

• Childcare for the under-5s in Britain is inadequate and expensive
• This acts as a barrier as it prevents women with young children from working in general, working full-time or staying in employment long enough to develop their career

Question 75

What do Marxists believe about life chances?

Answer 75

• According to Marxism, an individual’s life chances are largely related to their social class
• Working-class students are less likely to achieve good qualifications compared to middle-class students, which affects their life chances
• Middle-class parents are more likely to provide their children with attitudes that contribute to success in education and the workplace
• For example, planning for the future, a disciplined attitude and deferred gratification are attitudes that lead to better life chances

Question 76

What do Functionalists believe about life chances?

Answer 76

• Functionalists argue that in a meritocracy, life chances are the product of an individual’s hard work and talent
• Those who work hard will have higher incomes and thus better life chances
• This can result in social mobility as status is achieved, not ascribed

Question 77

What does the New Right perspective believe about life chances?

Answer 77

• The New Right perspective suggests that life chances are related to the lifestyle choices made by an individual
• For example, an unwillingness amongst some of Britain’s youth to work as it’s easier to claim benefits
• These choices lower an individual’s life chances

Question 78

What is an ethnic group?

Answer 78

An ethnic group is a social group whose members are united by a common identity, such as language, religion, or cultural traditions.

Question 79

What is an ethnic minority?

Answer 79

A group of individuals who belong to an ethnic group different from the majority is referred to as an ‘ethnic minority’

Question 80

What is an overview of ethnicity and racism?

Answer 80

• Ethnicity affects the life chances of individuals and groups and their access to power
• The UK is a culturally diverse society and is home to a rich mix of minority ethnic groups
• Such as those of Irish, Polish, Indian and African-Caribbean heritage
• Sociologists disagree that people can be classified into various racial groups
• Like gender differences, they contend that racial differences are socially constructed rather than biologically based
• Sociologists acknowledge that racism and prejudice exist

Question 81

What is race?

Answer 81

‘Race’ is a term used in different ways

• It is been used to describe the idea that people can be classified into various “racial groups” based on their physical and natural characteristics
• The oppression of other groups was justified by the belief that some races were superior to others
• For instance, this was used to defend European colonisation of parts of Africa and Asia in the 19th century

Question 82

What is prejudice?

Answer 82

Prejudice occurs when people prejudge an individual or group

Question 83

What is racism?

Answer 83

Racism occurs when people are treated differently and less favourably based on their ethnicity/race

Question 84

What percentage of the UK population were from minority ethnic backgrounds in 2015?

Answer 84

Data from the ONS indicates that 13% of the UK population were from minority ethnic backgrounds in 2015

Question 85

Are people from minority ethnic backgrounds represented well as holders of political power or decision-makers?

Answer 85

No, they are under-represented as holders of political power and decision-makers

Question 86

What are facts about people from minority ethnic backgrounds being under-represented in positions of power?

Answer 86

• After the 2015 General Election, there were 41 MPs from minority ethnic backgrounds
• In 2015, 7% of senior civil servants and 3.4% of senior police officers were from minority ethnic backgrounds
• In 2022, Rishi Sunak became the first British Asian prime minister
• After the 2024 General Election, however, Parliament became the most diverse ever, with the number of MPs from minority ethnic backgrounds increasing to 87

Question 87

What is a fact about people from minority ethnic backgrounds being under-represented within the judiciary?

Answer 87

Ethnic minority groups are under-represented within the judiciary in England and Wales

• In April 2016, of court judges who declared their identity, 5% declared their background as Black, Asian or Minority Ethnic (BAME)
• However, 8% of court judges aged under 40 years are BAME compared with just 3% aged 60 years or over

Question 88

What have attempts to address inequality based on ethnicity been linked to?

Answer 88

Over the last 50 years, attempts to address inequality based on ethnicity in areas such as education, employment and criminal justice have been linked to:

• Equality and anti-discrimination legislations
• The Equality and Human Rights Commission
• Recognition of institutional racism
• Equal opportunities policies

Question 89

What are the Equality and anti-discrimination legislations?

Answer 89

• The Race Relations Act of 1976 made victimisation, indirect discrimination, and discrimination illegal
• The Equality Act 2010 aims to protect people from unfair treatment and to promote a fair and more equal society

Question 90

What is The Equality and Human Rights Commission?

Answer 90

Britain’s national equality body aims to make the country a fairer place by tackling discrimination and promoting equal opportunities

Question 91

What is recognition of institutional racism?

Answer 91

• The Macpherson Report (1999) raised awareness of institutional racism within organisations such as the Metropolitan Police
• However, the Runnymede Trust and Amnesty International UK (2024) argue that the failure to tackle institutional racism is the cause of racist violence on UK streets

Question 92

What are the Equal opportunities policies?

Answer 92

There are statements and policies in place in workplaces and educational institutions that promote diversity and equality

Question 93

What do people say about Ethnicity & inequalities at work?

Answer 93

• Some commentators argue that inequalities based on ethnicity are much less significant than they were 50 years ago (e.g. there is a growing presence of ethnic minorities in politics, the arts, and the media)
• Others argue that in some of the most crucial areas (employment, education and the criminal justice system), little has changed

Question 94

Why do many people believe that inequalities based on ethnicity have barely changed over the last 50 years?

Answer 94

They argue that in some of the most crucial areas (employment, education and the criminal justice system), little has changed as:

• Those of Asian and Black Caribbean heritage have greater unemployment rates in the UK than do white people.
• Compared to their white British peers, men and women of Pakistani and Bangladeshi heritage have significantly lower chances of landing professional and managerial positions
• Chinese and Indian minority groups, however, have the same opportunities as their white British peers to obtain managerial and professional positions

Question 95

What are explanations for ethnic inequalities at work?

Answer 95

• Discrimination in the labour market so is harder for people to find jobs
• Minority ethnic groups and the underclass - have no interest in finding jobs
• Marxist approaches - racism is part of capitalism

Question 96

How does discrimination in the labour market lead to ethnic inequalities at work?

Answer 96

Discrimination in the labour market:

• In the workplace, prejudice and discrimination still exist, and it can be challenging to enforce equality laws
• Consequently, certain ethnic groups’ life chances and quality of life suffer

Question 97

What is the underclass?

Answer 97

The underclass is a core group of unemployed young people who have no interest in finding jobs and working hard

Question 98

How do minority ethnic groups and the underclass lead to ethnic inequalities at work?

Answer 98

• According to New Right viewpoints, some members of minority ethnic groups belong to an underclass
• According to Charles Murray (1984), the welfare system contributed to the rise of the underclass
• The underclass is a core group of unemployed young people who have no interest in finding jobs and working hard
• He linked African Americans and Hispanics to the underclass in the United States.

Question 99

How do marxist approaches on racism lead to ethnic inequalities at work?

Answer 99

• Marxists hold that sexism and racism are a natural part of capitalism
• Working-class women and members of ethnic minorities are among the groups that make up a labour reserve
• They can be hired to work during economic booms when capitalism needs them and fired during recessions
• Workers know they can be readily replaced if they demand a pay increase, so they keep wages low

Question 100

What is chronological age?

Answer 100

• This means simply how long they have been alive
• For example, someone born in 2010 would be 14 years old in 2024
• Chronological age determines your rights and responsibilities, such as learning to drive and being able to vote

Question 101

What is biological age?

Answer 101

• This means looking at age in biological terms
• A person’s age may be related to the physical changes taking place in their bodies
• For example, the average age puberty begins in girls is 11 and the average age of menopause is 51
• Biological changes are linked to chronological age

Question 102

What is age as a social category?

Answer 102

• Sociologists explore how age is seen in social terms
• We may have different expectations of people and treat them differently depending on their age
• For example, we may be surprised that an 80-year-old runs marathons and that a 4-year-old likes to knit

Question 103

What was childhood and power like in medieval times?

Answer 103

• In medieval times, children over the age of 5 were seen as small adults who took part in the adult world
• Children and adults had the same status

Question 104

What was childhood and power like in the 19th century?

Answer 104

• In the 19th century, child labour was the norm among working-class families
• For example, children worked long hours in cotton mills, factories and coal mines due to poverty

Question 105

What have legal changes relating to the education and employment of children lead to?

Answer 105

There have been many legal changes relating to the education and employment of children

• This means that the status of children has changed historically
• Children now have a different status from adults
• Childhood is seen as a separate stage to youth and adulthood
• Children are regarded as dependent and vulnerable
• Laws protect them against exploitation in the workplace

Question 106

What is childhood and power like in other cultures?

Answer 106

• Expectations surrounding childhood vary between cultures
• The line separating childhood from adulthood is less distinct in other cultures
• Some children must take care of themselves and act like adults at work

Question 107

What are power relationships like in families?

Answer 107

• The family is an agency of social control in which parents or guardians are authority figures
• They are supposed to be in charge of their children and discipline them when needed
• Attempting to control their children’s behaviour against their will is an example of parental power
• Traditionally, parents were powerful figures in families and children had few rights
• Since the 1950s, there has been a shift of power and attention towards children in working-class families (Cunningham, 2007)
• Parents and children have more equal or democratic relationships
• It is now recognised that children have rights within families

Question 108

What is youth?

Answer 108

Youth is an important stage of development in which individuals transition from the status of a child to an adult

Question 109

What does youth involve?

Answer 109

• increasing independence from families
• moving out of the family home
• finishing full-time education
• moving into full-time employment
• gaining more power and status in society

Question 110

What year do researchers believe that ‘teenagers’ emerged as a social category?

Answer 110

Researchers believe that ‘teenagers’ emerged as a social category in the 1950s

Question 111

What are factors affecting the transition between childhood and adulthood?

Answer 111

• Financial factors
• Gender, ethnicity, social class and location

Question 112

How do financial factors affect the transition between childhood and adulthood?

Answer 112

• Young people tend to earn less as the National Minimum Wage for those aged 18-20 is set at a lower rate (£10.00 from April 2025) than those over 21 so they have less disposable income
• They are more likely to be on zero-hours contracts and experience underemployment
• Many young people continue to be financially dependent on their parents into their 20s and beyond
• Full-time students may live at home because they cannot afford to live independently
• Many boomerang children are returning home after university to live with their parents due to student debt, low income and poor housing

Question 113

How does gender, ethnicity, social class and location affect the transition between childhood and adulthood?

Answer 113

• The unemployment rate for young people aged 16-24 years is higher than for older groups
• Between July and September 2011, 16.9% of all 16-24 years in the UK were not in education, employment or training (NEETs)
• Between April and June 2016, the proportion was lower at 11.7%
• Between July and September 2024, the proportion of NEETs increased to 13.2%
• Those from some ethnic minority backgrounds are more likely than others to experience unemployment
• Some young people’s access to secure employment or to higher education is limited by their lack of educational qualifications
• Many young people without qualifications are likely to find work in only low-paid, insecure jobs or zero-hours contract work
• Some young people may receive financial help from their families when going to university or during unpaid internships
• Others may not be able to understand unpaid work experience
• Some young people benefit from an expensive, elite education
• Others have no choice over which secondary school they attend

Question 114

How do teachers have power over young people?

Answer 114

• Teachers exercise power to enforce school rules over students based on their position within the school structure
• This is limited to particular school contexts
• Not all students conform to the school rules or authority structure, particularly those that belong to a deviant subculture
• Teachers may exercise a form of authority based on their charisma
• Such teachers inspire their students

Question 115

How have relationships between students and teachers changed over time?

Answer 115

• They have become more informal and democratic
• Legal changes mean that teachers no longer have the power to use corporal punishment
• By law, schools must now take students’ views into account when deciding on policies that affect them

Question 116

When were retirement and pensions introduced to the UK?

Answer 116

• Aspects of older age in modern Britain, such as retirement and pensions. are relatively recent developments
• State pensions were introduced in 1908, before which people worked until they were physically unable to
• Retirement has only been the norm in Britain since the mid-20th century

Question 117

How does the status of older people vary between cultures?

Answer 117

• The status of older people varies between cultures
• In Britain, ageing is often seen as something to be avoided
• In other cultures, older age is seen as something to look forward to

Question 118

What is ageism?

Answer 118

• Ageism or age discrimination is when a person is treated differently and less favourably on the basis of their age
• In the year ending 31st March 2011, 6,800 claims were filed with Employment Tribunals in Britain for age discrimination
• This reduced to 3,700 at the end of March 2012

Question 119

Who is the most vulnerable to ageism?

Answer 119

Young people and older people tend to be more vulnerable to ageism (e.g., in the workplace) than other groups

• They may experience negative stereotyping based on their age
• People in their 50s and 60s may be denied promotion because their employer believes they are too old to learn new skills
• Older people may be denied treatments on offer to young people
• Younger people have more negative interactions with authority

Question 120

What regulation is against age discrimination?

Answer 120

The Equality Act 2010 protects people from age discrimination, for example, at work and when accessing services in places like hotels and gyms

Question 121

How does the social position of older people vary between individuals and groups?

Answer 121

• It depends on whether they are ‘young old’ (65-74 years), ‘middle old’ (75-84 years) or ‘old old’ (85 years and over)
• Some experience poverty, while others enjoy an affluent lifestyle with a high-status position in society
• People who retire with an occupational pension are likely to enjoy a good standard of living
• Those relying on a state pension are more vulnerable to poverty

Question 122

What is age and poverty linked to?

Answer 122

• Age and poverty may be linked to social divisions such as gender, ethnicity and class
• For example, the life chances of an elderly, working-class, widowed black women may be much worse than those of a newly retired, middle-class, married white man
• Middle-class men are more likely than other groups to have built up an occupational pension

Question 123

What are other factors affecting life chances? (less detailed than gender/ethnicity/age)

Answer 123

• The Equality Act 2010 protects people from discrimination based on characteristics such as disability, religion or belief and sexuality
• However, life chances can still be influenced by these characteristics
• People’s sexuality can affect their life chances when they experience homophobia within education or the workplace
• People’s religion or beliefs can affect their life chances; for example, if they experience Islamophobia
• Disabilities can affect people’s life chances when they experience disablism within education or the workplace

Question 124

How does disability affect life chances?

Answer 124

• Individuals with health issues are more likely to suffer from material deprivation and social exclusion
• Social barriers make it difficult for people with disabilities to participate fully in society, which affects their life chances
• People with disabilities are at risk of poverty

Question 125

What social barriers do disabled people face?

Answer 125

• prejudiced attitudes and stereotypes held by some people
• discriminatory practices towards people with disabilities
• facing stigma relating to whether they are capable of working, reinforced by Work Capability Assessment
• the educational underachievement of children with disabilities

Question 126

Why are people with disabilities at risk of poverty?

Answer 126

• some forms of disability create extra expenses that other people on low incomes don’t face (such as special diet, equipment and transport)
• people with disabilities may have relatively low incomes because they are disadvantaged in the labour market
• They are more likely to be unemployed or work in low-paid jobs

Question 127

Why do hate crimes happen?

Answer 127

• Some people become victims of a crime that is motivated by hostility or prejudice related to characteristics such as their sexual orientation, disability, religion or transgender identity
• It is possible to view hate crime victims as scapegoats who are blamed for society’s social and economic issues
• Hate crimes are an example of how power is used to try to control certain groups
• Social inequality generates resentment
• However people like Muslim youth, gay men, and disabled women are now protected from hate crimes by legislation

Question 128

What are health inequalities?

Answer 128

• The Marmot Review (2010) found that people in higher socio-economic positions have better life chances and better health
• For example, people with university degrees have better health and live longer than those without
• Every year people die prematurely in England due to serious health inequalities
• The Marmot Review argued that health inequalities are a result of avoidable inequalities in society
• For example in education, housing, working conditions, income and standards of living

Question 129

What is the embourgeoisement thesis?

Answer 129

• According to some sociologists, wealthy working-class families were adopting middle-class norms and values in the late 1950s and early 1960s

This embourgeoisement thesis claims that their affluence caused them to:

• support capitalism
• have aspirations centred on consumerism
• embrace individualistic, privatised lifestyles focused on themselves and their family

Traditional working-class values of solidarity, criticism of capitalism, and support for trade unions and the labour movement had disappeared

Question 130

Which sociologists wrote the original affluent worker study?

Answer 130

Goldthorpe & Lockwood

Question 131

What was Goldthorpe & Lockwood’s affluent worker study?

Answer 131

• Goldthorpe and Lockwood’s study testing the embourgeoisement thesis was carried out in Luton in the early 1960s
• The researchers used structured interviews to question affluent manual workers and their wives from three different companies
• They were asked about their attitudes to work, lifestyles, aspirations and political views
• Goldthorpe and Lockwood’s findings led them to reject the embourgeoisement thesis
• However, they argued that affluent workers might be part of an emerging ‘new’ working class who were similar to the middle class

Question 132

In what ways did Goldthorpe & Lockwood argue that the new working class were similar to the middle class?

Answer 132

They argued that affluent workers might be part of an emerging ‘new’ working class who were similar to the middle class in the following ways:

• They had privatised, home-centred lifestyles
• Goldthorpe and Lockwood called this privatised instrumentalism
• They were similar in terms of their instrumental collectivism
• i.e. they joined in collective actions through trade unions but only to improve their own pay rather than to change society for the benefit of everybody
• They had an instrumental attitude to paid work, meaning that work was just a means to living a comfortable lifestyle

Question 133

Which sociologist revisited Goldthorpe & Lockwood’s study?

Answer 133

Devine (1992): The affluent worker revisited

Question 134

Who is Devine (1992)?

Answer 134

• Fiona Devine (1992) has a critical perspective and revisited Luton and the ideas of Goldthorpe and Lockwood two decades after their study
• Since the early 1960s, the town had experienced a recession

Question 135

What is the aim of Devine’s study?

Answer 135

• Devine’s aim was to explore privatised instrumentalism
• i.e. how far working-class lifestyles centred on the immediate family in the home in the 1980s
• Devine interviewed a sample of male manual workers employed at the Vauxhall car plant in Luton and their wives
• By returning to Luton, she was able to make a direct comparison with the work of Goldthorpe and Lockwood in the 1960s, which she was critical of

Question 136

What was the first point of comparison between Goldthorpe & Lockwood and Devine in their affluent worker studies?

Answer 136

Goldthorpe and Lockwood:

• Affluent workers were geographically mobile
• They moved to Luton to find highly paid manual work and to improve their standard of living
• They had an instrumental attitude towards paid work in that it was a way to improve living standards rather than to get job satisfaction or to make friends

Devine:

• Workers were geographically mobile
• They wanted to improve their living standards but their move wasn’t just for this reason
• Many were forced to escape unemployment and job insecurity and to find affordable housing
• They were not purely instrumental in their geographical move

Question 137

What was the second point of comparison between Goldthorpe & Lockwood and Devine in their affluent worker studies?

Answer 137

Goldthorpe and Lockwood:

• Affluent workers were like the traditional working class in that their friends were working-class neighbours
• But like the lower middle class, their lives and social relationships were privatised and home-centred; e.g., they spent leisure time watching TV and socialising with immediate family members (privatised instrumentalism)

Devine:

• Families had not moved to Luton on their own but joined family and friends there
• They helped each other move by providing information on job opportunities and housing in Luton
• Geographical mobility did not lead to separation from kin and a home-centred and family-centred lifestyle
• They did not have purely privatised lifestyles

Question 138

What was the third point of comparison between Goldthorpe & Lockwood and Devine in their affluent worker studies?

Answer 138

Goldthorpe and Lockwood:

• Affluent workers had individualistic social and political attitudes
• They supported the Labour Party for individual gain, and they had an instrumental attitude towards trade unions
• Unlike the traditional working class, these affluent workers were not motivated by working-class solidarity and the idea of ‘sticking together’

Devine:

• Their aspirations and their social and political values were not solely individualistic
• There was plenty of evidence of solidarity among the interviewees rather than individualism
• Many resented the privileges of inherited wealth and felt it was unfair as it was not earned
• They felt extreme class inequalities in society were unfair
• They had lost faith in the ability of the Labour Party to deliver a more just and equal society

Question 139

What were Devine’s conclusions?

Answer 139

• Devine concluded that working-class lifestyles , norms and values have not changed as much as Goldthorpe & Lockwood’s affluent worker study suggested
• She also rejected the idea of the ‘new working class’ and suggested that affluent workers were critical of capitalism
• There was limited evidence to support the idea of embourgeoisement and privatised instrumentalism

Question 140

What is social mobility?

Answer 140

Social mobility refers to people’s movement up or down a society’s strata, i.e. between social classes

Question 141

Why are some people interested in social mobility?

Answer 141

Sociologists, politicians, and policymakers are interested in social mobility because it is an important indicator of how open a society is

Question 142

What can rates of upward and downward mobility be used to argue?

Answer 142

Rates of upward and downward mobility can be used to argue that:

• status is achieved, not ascribed
• society functions as a meritocracy and offers equality of opportunity, e.g., through state education, everyone is assumed a chance of success
• instead of inherited wealth or personal connections, people are rewarded on the basis of merit

Question 143

What are the 2 types of social mobility?

Answer 143

• Intra-generational social mobility: When a person moves between social classes over their lifetime, e.g., due to promotion
• Inter-generational social mobility: When a child moves to a different social class from their parents

Question 144

What are the different routes to upward social mobility?

Answer 144

• Educational achievements and qualifications can lead to high-status roles
• Marriage, even though most people marry people with similar educational backgrounds and professions to their own
• Windfalls like a sizable lottery win or inheritance
• Occupational structure changes, such as a rise in white collar work and a decline in manual labour, lead to more opportunities for upward mobility

Question 145

What are examples of barriers to social mobility?

Answer 145

• limited prospects, e.g., a lack of growth in the economy, which leads to fewer secure, well-paid job opportunities
• limited access to further or higher education, e.g., students from working-class backgrounds are less likely to attend university than their middle-class peers
• graduate earning potential, e.g., working-class graduates still tend to earn less than their middle-class peers
• discrimination based on ethnicity or gender e.g. Second-generation Pakistani and Bangladeshi women are less likely to be in professional or managerial jobs than similarly qualified white British women and The glass ceiling prevents women from from progressing in the workplace due to family constraints
• a lack of skills and qualifications, e.g., ONS figures show that 13.2% of all people aged 16-24 were NEET in July to September 2024
• There are too few alternatives to university that allow young people to develop the skills and qualifications needed for social mobility

Question 146

What is social mobility like in the UK?

Answer 146

• The likelihood of a working-class child landing a managerial or professional position is only 25% that of a middle-class child - (Since Goldthorpe’s 1972-1974 mobility study, there has been minimal change in the relative chances of working-class and middle-class children obtaining professional jobs)
• In the UK, social mobility declined towards the end of the 20th century
• Social mobility is in decline
• Investment banking has an over-representation of people from wealthier backgrounds (The Social Mobility Commission, 2016)

Question 147

What is a fact about social mobility declining towards the end of the 20th century in the UK?

Answer 147

Compared to children born in the 1970s, children born into manual working-class families in 1958 had a higher chance of advancing into higher occupations

Question 148

What are some facts about declining social mobility in the UK?

Answer 148

• Professional and manual job growth has slowed, and skilled manual jobs have decreased (Crompton, 2008)
• Clerical workers are among the workers who have experienced proletarianisation, a process in which middle classes undergo downward social mobility through assimilation into the working class

Question 149

Why is there an over-representation of people from wealthier backgrounds in investment banking?

Answer 149

• Banks hire from prestigious universities like Warwick, Cambridge, and Oxford
• A candidate’s “polish,” or confidence, dress, speech, accent, and demeanour is also a factor in determining their suitability
• Therefore, those who have grown up in a middle-class or upper-class environment have an advantage

Question 150

What issues are there when measuring social mobility?

Answer 150

• Some studies of inter-generational mobility focus only on males
• They provide no information about the experiences of women in social mobility
• Research asks participants to recall their own or their parents’ work histories
• They are likely to be based on unreliable data
• Researchers decide which age and point in a person’s career to measure mobility from
• This is problematic as it does not always provide the full picture
• For example, a person might be in a temporary retail job while waiting for a suitable opening on a management programme

Question 151

How relevant is social class today?

Answer 151

• Whether “class” is still a useful concept in sociology is up for debate
• One approach is that social class is not as relevant in the UK today - class divisions and identities are no longer significant
• Another theory holds that since the 1970s, there has been less of a correlation between voting behaviour and class
• Working-class people tended to vote Labour and middle-class people tended to vote Conservative
• This is known as class alignment
• One recent approach is that voting behaviour is no longer thought to be strongly predicted by class
• This is known as class dealignment

Question 152

What are arguments that social class is still a useful concept?

Answer 152

• According to the 2016 British Social Attitudes Survey, 40% of respondents identify as middle class and 60% as working class
• Despite a decline in working-class jobs, the percentage of people who identify as working-class remains unchanged from 1983
• People’s class identity is influenced by their family background and educational attainments
• For instance, many middle-class individuals who are from working-class backgrounds or did not go to university consider themselves to be working-class
• Economic changes since 2005, such as recessions and zero-hours contracts, have made people more aware of class differences

Question 153

What are arguments that social class is not a useful concept?

Answer 153

• The working class has shrunk in size since working-class employment has declined e.g. coal mining and shipbuilding and Trade union membership has declined since the 1970s
• Over time, particularly in the past 20 years, class identities have weakened - People now tend to pick and choose from other social identities, such as gender and ethnicity
• According to Saunders (1996), the advantages that children of wealthy parents enjoy do not significantly influence outcomes in modern-day Britain - However, social background and social identities can influence where people end up in the hierarchy at work

Question 154

What did Saunders (1996) argue about social class and mobility?

Answer 154

• According to Saunders (1996), the advantages that children of wealthy parents enjoy do not significantly influence outcomes in modern-day Britain
• However, social background and social identities can influence where people end up in the hierarchy at work

He argues that the following social factors all count:

• Parents, e.g. their social class, education and interest in their children’s schooling
• Gender
• Type of school attended, e.g. private education
• Conditions at home, e.g. overcrowding hinders success

Saunders places more emphasis on a person’s ability and motivation for their occupation than their social class

• This includes mental ability, motivation to succeed and qualifications
• In Britain, people are categorised according to their ability and effort, making it a meritocracy

Question 155

How does wealth and income influence life chances?

Answer 155

• Wealth refers to the ownership of assets that are valuable, such as property, art and jewellery
• Wealth also includes money in savings accounts and shares in companies
• Wealth is passed down the generations through inheritance
• Income refers to the flow of resources that individuals and households receive, such as cash from wages or petrol allowance
• Other sources of income include salaries, welfare benefits and pensions

Question 156

What is the distribution of wealth like?

Answer 156

• Stratification involves the unequal distribution of wealth and income in Britain
• Wealth is distributed more unevenly than income
• Between July 2012 and June 2014, the wealthiest 10% of households in Britain owned 45% of overall wealth
• Contrastingly, the bottom 50% owned only 9% of overall wealth

Question 157

The super-rich are multimillionaires who:

Answer 157

• own wealth in the forms of shares in industry, finance and commerce
• are upper-class landowners who inherited their wealth

Question 158

What is the distribution of income like?

Answer 158

• Income is linked to life chances, life expectancy and access to education, housing and health services
• Like wealth, income is distributed unevenly between households in the UK
• During the 2014/15 financial year, the average income of the richest 20% of households before benefits and taxes was 14 times greater than that of the poorest 20%
• One way of redistributing income is through taxes and benefits
• By doing this, the income of the richest 20% was only 4 times greater than that of the poorest 20%

Question 159

What is the ‘overclass’?

Answer 159

• Beresford (2013) identifies an emerging ‘overclass’
• They are the very rich and powerful, also known as the ‘fat cats’ and ‘super-rich’
• There are increasing links between the overclass, politicians and government

This new group appears to:

• profit from economic problems in society
• be among the leaders of huge corporations that avoid paying tax and those that damage the environment
• be small but holds power and influence in political and economic terms

Beresford argues that the very rich and powerful overclass appears to:

• show little commitment to traditional values
• be more of a threat to society than the poor and powerless underclass

Question 160

What are 2 ways of defining poverty?

Answer 160

There is no single agreed way of defining poverty, but there are two broad approaches

• Absolute approach
• Relative approach

Question 161

What is absolute poverty?

Answer 161

• People experience absolute poverty when their income is not enough to obtain the basic necessities for survival
• e.g. they do not have access to basics such as food, clean water, shelter, heating and clothing
• Their income is so low they can barely survive
• This definition of poverty is an objective measure based on a measurement of minimum subsistence requirements

Question 162

What is an evaluation of absolute poverty?

Answer 162

• This definition is useful as it allows researchers to measure trends over time
• However, it is difficult to determine what the ‘minimum needed to survive’ is
• For example, is bread and water enough to survive on, or should a basic diet include fresh fruit and vegetables?

Question 163

What is relative poverty?

Answer 163

• People experience relative poverty when their income is well below average, so they are poor compared to others in society
• Most researchers (such as Townsend, 1979) in the UK use the relative definition of poverty
• This approach recognises that what is considered to be poverty is relative to place and time
• This means that we will always find poverty in a society unless incomes are distributed equally
• Poverty can include social exclusion, which refers to being shut out from everyday activities, such as society’s social, economic, political and cultural life
• In this case, poverty is not just about low incomes but about excluding people from activities that most people take for granted

Question 164

The definition of poverty chosen by the state is important because it determines:

Answer 164

• how far the government accepts that poverty exists
• what policies are adopted to tackle poverty
• how those experiencing poverty are treated

Question 165

What is an evaluation of relative poverty?

Answer 165

• Relative definitions are held by some to be a measure of inequality rather than poverty
• All capitalist societies have some form of inequality, but this is not necessarily the same as poverty
• Indicators of relative poverty are held by some to be largely subjective
• What one researcher considers as being a ‘need’ in society may not be shared with another, e.g., is access to a car essential?

Question 166

How do you measure poverty?

Answer 166

• There are different ways of measuring poverty
• The official UK government measure is in terms of low incomes
• Low incomes are those below 60% of the median income of the population after housing costs

Other ways of measuring poverty and subjective and environmental poverty:

• Subjective poverty is based on whether people see themselves as living in poverty
• Environmental poverty measures deprivation in terms of inadequate housing, lack of a garden and air pollution

Question 167

What is a Key study about poverty in the UK?

Answer 167

Townsend (1979): Poverty in the UK

Question 168

What was the aim of Townsend’s (1979) study?

Answer 168

• Peter Townsend (1979) aimed to determine how many people were living in poverty in the UK
• He believed that in a developed society it was more important to measure deprivation relatively than the state’s standard measure, which was absolute

Question 169

What method did Townsend (1979) use to study poverty?

Answer 169

• Townsend used his relative deprivation definition of poverty to measure the extent of poverty in the UK
• His research was based on questionnaires issued to over 2,000 households and more than 6,000 individuals located in various geographical areas in the UK
• He devised a deprivation index to measure relative deprivation
• This covered 60 indicators of deprivation, including diet, fuel, clothing, housing conditions, employment, working conditions, health, education and social activities
• Each household was given a score on this deprivation index
• Townsend calculated a threshold for levels of income below which the amount of deprivation rapidly increased

Question 170

What were Townsend’s (1979) findings and conclusions?

Answer 170

• Townsend calculated that more than 22% of the population were living in poverty in 1968–1969
• This proportion was much higher than that based on the state standard of poverty, which suggested that just over 6% were living in poverty
• His calculation was also higher than the relative income standard of poverty, which was 9%
• He also identified particular groups of people who were at risk of poverty

Question 171

Who did Townsend (1979) identify as particular groups of people who were at risk of poverty?

Answer 171

He identified particular groups of people who were at risk of poverty, such as:

• elderly people who had worked in unskilled manual jobs
• children in families of young unskilled manual workers or in one-parent families

Question 172

What is an evaluation of Townsend (1979)?

Answer 172

• Townsend’s methods and conclusions have been criticised by those who argue that his index was inadequate and produced potentially misleading results
• For example, the absence of fresh meat and cooked meals might not be an indicator of poverty but of lifestyle choices or religious belief
• If the index is inadequate, then the statistics based on it will also be questioned, as the data will be skewed

Question 173

Is the likelihood of living in poverty evenly distributed?

Answer 173

The likelihood of living in poverty is not evenly distributed, as some people face particularly high levels

Question 174

What groups of people is the proportion of people in poverty relatively high in?

Answer 174

The proportion of people in poverty is relatively high among:

• older people
• people with disabilities or ill health
• people from some ethnic minority groups
• women
• families with children, including lone-parent families

Question 175

How does ethnicity and poverty relate?

Answer 175

• People who live in UK households headed by a member of a minority ethnic group are more likely to be low-income households
• Minority ethnic groups typically face disadvantages in terms of job quality, pay, and unemployment
• Explanations for this include racism and discrimination in the labour market
• They also tend to be disadvantaged within the welfare state through low take-up of state benefits

Question 176

What are the ethnicities with the highest percentages of people in poverty?

Answer 176

According to the Joseph Roundtree Foundation (2024) between 2019/20 and 2021/22:

• Around half of people in Pakistani (51%) and Bangladeshi households (53%) were in poverty
• Households from Black African backgrounds (42%) were in poverty
• These households have higher rates of child poverty, very deep poverty and persistent poverty.

Question 177

Why are women more at risk of poverty than men?

Answer 177

Women are more at risk of poverty than men for a number of reasons:

• Despite having longer life expectancies than men, women are more likely to live alone and have lower occupational pensions
• Low-income, single-parent households are more likely to be headed by women than by men
• The gender pay gap exists because many female-dominated positions in customer service and retail are paid relatively poorly
• Compared to men, women are more likely to work part-time for low pay, which affects their occupational pension

Question 178

What reasons would make children particularly vulnerable to poverty?

Answer 178

Children are particularly vulnerable to poverty if they live in a family:

• with four or more children
• where the head of the household is a lone parent or from a minority ethnic group
• where the head(s) of the household is unemployed

Question 179

What does child poverty do to the children?

Answer 179

Children’s life chances, such as their life expectancy, health, housing, educational attainment, and employment prospects, are negatively affected by poverty

Question 180

What is the life-cycle of poverty?

Answer 180

The life-cycle of poverty:

• demonstrates a person’s journey into and out of poverty throughout their lifetime
• implies that individuals may enter and exit poverty at various points in their lives
• For example, a person may experience a period of situational poverty due to losing their job, an illness or a divorce

Question 181

What are factors that affect poverty?

Answer 181

• ethnicity
• gender
• unemployment
• earning a low wage
• overcrowding or poor living conditions
• suffering ill health or disability
• life events, such as divorce or eviction

Question 182

What are explanations of poverty?

Answer 182

There are several explanations of poverty:

• Some focus on individuals and imply they are responsible for their position
• Some concentrate on societal structures and the ways in which political systems produce and maintain poverty

for example:

• the culture of poverty
• the cycle of deprivation

Question 183

What is the culture of poverty + how does it explain poverty?

Answer 183

• During the 1950s and 1960s, some groups’ poverty was explained by their culture or way of life
• One view is that people from the poorest section of society were socialised within the subculture of poverty and are unable to break free from it (e.g., Oscar Lewis)

To deal with their circumstances, people in poverty adopt a way of life and a set of values. They may hold the following beliefs:

• People can do little to change their situation so they may as well accept it
• Live for today and do not worry about tomorrow (immediate gratification)
• There is no point in saving up and planning for the future

Therefore:

• These values helped those in poverty adapt to their situation but discouraged them from escaping poverty through staying on a school or planning for the future
• Because parents instilled these values in their children through socialisation, poverty continued to exist across generations

Question 184

What is an evaluation of the culture of poverty explaining poverty?

Answer 184

This explanation can be criticised as it:

• shows how people might adapt to poverty, but it doesn’t explain what actually causes poverty in the first place
• blames those in poverty for their situation as it focuses on individuals and their culture
• ignores structural factors such as unemployment levels or the impact of global economic recessions

Question 185

What is the cycle of deprivation + how does it explain poverty?

Answer 185

• Supporters of the culture of poverty approach argue that people are locked into a cycle of deprivation
• Child is born into poverty, child experiences material + cultural deprivation, child is disadvantaged in education and less likely to gain qualifications, young adult likely to go into low paid, unskilled work or be unemployed, adult lives in poverty, becomes a parent of deprived children so the cycle continues
• According to this explanation, the policy to remove poverty involves employing social workers and seeking support from local authorities to break children out of the cycle of deprivation

Question 186

What is material deprivation?

Answer 186

Material deprivation involves having insufficient money to be able to afford goods and services

• People might not eat a balanced diet as a result
• Childhood poverty may result in poor health
• Families may live in temporary housing, such as hostels, due to a lack of suitable housing

Question 187

What is cultural deprivation?

Answer 187

Cultural deprivation occurs when a child’s upbringing does not give them the tools they need to succeed in school

• They have less parental encouragement
• In comparison to children from more affluent backgrounds, they have less positive educational experiences

Question 188

What is an evaluation of the cycle of deprivation explaining poverty?

Answer 188

This explanation can be criticised as it:

• fails to explain why some groups fall into poverty in the first place
• ignores structural factors that cause poverty and focuses on the behaviour of individuals or families

Question 189

How do functionalists explain poverty?

Answer 189

• When attempting to explain poverty, structural approaches such as functionalism reject the emphasis on individuals and groups
• Rather, they emphasise the role that societal structure plays in poverty
• In order to fill functionally important positions, social inequality is required according to Davis and Moore’s theory of stratification
• Other functionalist theories focus on the the positive function of poverty for some groups - e.g. it helps ensure that dirty and dangerous work gets done cheaply
• There would not be anyone to perform these unappealing jobs if there were no poor people
• They believe poverty creates jobs for groups that deal with the poor - e.g. the police, social workers, probation officers and charity workers
• However, critics contend that rather than trying to explain poverty, functionalism attempts to defend and justify its existence

Question 190

How do marxists explain poverty?

Answer 190

• Marxism is another structural approach which argues that poverty results from class-based inequalities that are built into capitalist society
• As an economic system, capitalism creates extreme wealth for the bourgeoisie while producing poverty for the proletariat
• The bourgeoisie benefits from poverty because it allows them to hire and fire employees as needed
• Marxists argue that inequality is not inevitable and that poverty and exploitation can be removed by:
• Marxists also believe that welfare is a mechanism used by the ruling class to preserve capitalism, preventing the underclass from becoming class conscious

Question 191

How do marxists say that the bourgeoisie benefit from poverty?

Answer 191

The bourgeoisie benefits from poverty because it allows them to hire and fire employees as needed

• For instance, employers may threaten to replace employees if they demand higher pay
• To keep wages low and profits high, workers can be disciplined by their fear of unemployment and poverty
• They employ the services of the lumpenproletariat, who are the criminals, vagrants, and the unemployed

Question 192

What do marxists believe that poverty and exploitation can be removed by doing?

Answer 192

Marxists argue that inequality is not inevitable and that poverty and exploitation can be removed by:

• having revolutionary change in society
• replacing private ownership of factories, land and capital
• having communal ownership of the means of production

Question 193

How do Marxists believe that welfare preserves capitalism by creating false class consciousness?

Answer 193

Marxists also believe that welfare is a mechanism used by the ruling class to preserve capitalism, preventing the underclass from becoming class conscious

• Providing the underclass with the bare minimum they need to survive stops them from demanding more or challenging the status quo
• People feel grateful to the welfare state for supporting them to the point that they do not question why they are at the bottom of the social hierarchy

Question 194

How do feminists explain poverty?

Answer 194

• Feminists argue that women face a greater risk of poverty than men, especially lone mothers and older women living alone
• Feminists, such as Jan Pahl (1989), suggest that female poverty may be hidden in some couple households
• Women are more likely than men to be welfare dependent due to their greater risk of poverty
• However, the welfare state fails to adequately support women who are single parents or carers and reinforces a patriarchal society
• Welfare policies tend to support the traditional family and perpetuate reliance on a male breadwinner

Question 195

What do feminists say that are possible reasons for women’s greater risk of poverty than men?

Answer 195

Possible reasons for women’s greater risk include:

• the gender pay gap
• inequality in the division of caring responsibilities
• longer life expectancy than men

Question 196

What did Jan Pahl (1989) say about poverty in relation to women?

Answer 196

Feminists, such as Jan Pahl (1989), suggest that female poverty may be hidden in some couple households

• For instance, when their male partners are relatively wealthy, women may be poor
• This could be because income isn’t always shared fairly within families
• Mothers frequently forgo warmth, food, and clothing in order to provide for their children
• Mothers are typically the ones who suffer the most from poverty when it comes to handling money in low-income households

Question 197

What is the Key study about Poverty - with a negative view of the underclass?

Answer 197

Murray (1984): New Right & poverty

Question 198

What are Murray (1984)’s overall explanations of poverty?

Answer 198

• New Right explanations of poverty focus on individual behaviour rather than structural causes of poverty
• New Right supporters stress the importance of traditional values and self-reliance
• The perspective is a combination of neo-liberal and neo-conservative ideas, and includes elements of both neo-liberal and neo-conservative thinking.
• They believe that welfare state provision is too generous and has created a culture of welfare dependency and an underclass

Question 199

What does Murray (1984) describe an underclass as?

Answer 199

• they are at the bottom of the social stratification system
• they experience long-term poverty and are unable to earn a living
• they are dependent on welfare rather than taking responsibility for their own lives

Question 200

What does Murray (1984) say about the underclass in America?

Answer 200

• American political scientist Charles Murray argued that American society had a growing underclass. He believed that government policies have encouraged the members of the underclass to become dependent on benefits

In his view, American welfare reforms, which resulted in increased levels of benefit, have:

• discouraged self-sufficiency
• led a growing number of single parents and young people to lose interest in getting jobs

.

• According to Murray, the growing membership of the underclass posed a threat to the economic and social fabric of American society
• This is because its members were a burden on tax payers and responsible for a rising crime rate

Question 201

What does Murray (1984) say about the underclass in the UK?

Answer 201

• Murray visited Britain in 1989 and argued that Britain too was developing an underclass - by analysing official statistics, he argued that the UK’s underclass is growing rapidly
• He focused on the behaviour of the ‘undeserving poor’ and identified three signs of the development of an underclass
• Murray argued that welfare reform was needed
  claiming benefits was easy and took away the incentive to work
• He believed that the values and morals of the underclass (e.g. tolerating anti-social behaviour) differ from mainstream values of hard work and honesty

Question 202

What did Murray (1984) identify as 3 signs of the development of an underclass?

Answer 202

He focused on the behaviour of the ‘undeserving poor’ and identified three signs of the development of an underclass:

• a rising crime rate
• an increase in the number of births outside of marriage
• an apparent unwillingness amongst some of Britain’s youth to seek employment

Question 203

Why did Murray (1984) argue that welfare reform was needed?

Answer 203

Murray argued that welfare reform was needed as:

• some people who needed help were not given help
• national welfare systems made some social problems worse
• For example, they encouraged crime, single parenthood and long-term unemployment
• claiming benefits was easy and took away the incentive to work
• This is because state provision is generous and has created a culture of dependency

Question 204

What is a positive evaluation of Murray (1984)?

Answer 204

Murray’s work is supported by Oscar Lewis, who argued that a distinct culture of poverty exists

• The culture of poverty is a set of values, beliefs, and behaviors that develop among poor people
• These values are passed down from one generation to the next, creating a cycle of poverty that is hard to break

The underclass as a term is used as a label that:

• ‘blames the victims’ for their misfortunes (Crompton, 2008)
• stigmatises people and distances them from the rest of society

Question 205

What are criticisms of Murray (1984)?

Answer 205

• Murray’s work has been criticised for its poor evidence base: Much of the research evidence suggests that the benefit system does not have the effect that he claims, and that Welfare state provision is far from generous
• Many of the underclass actually have traditional attitudes and aspirations, such as having stable relationships and paid employment
• Sociologists argue that the focus should be on the ‘overclass’, i.e. the rich and powerful groups in society

Members of the underclass can be seen as the victims of the structure of society rather than the cause of social problems

• For example, during recessions, unemployment increases so poverty increases
• Limited employment opportunities are creating increasing unemployment
• Those from poorer backgrounds often struggle to achieve in school and this can limit their employment prospects
• The benefits system fails to meet people’s needs as they are too low

The social democratic perspective argues that the welfare state does not create an underclass but:

• protects the vulnerable from the inequality of capitalism
• ensures that people with disabilities and limited qualifications can provide for themselves and their families
• helps people that have ended up in their position due to circumstance and not by choice

Question 206

What is the impact of globalisation on UK poverty?

Answer 206

• Some commentators argue that globalisation, a by-product of capitalism, has increased inequality between countries and within them
• The downturn in the global economy led to a financial crisis and recession in the UK between 2008 and 2010

This resulted in:
- increased job insecurity
- job losses
- redundancies
- unemployment

• At the same time, the rising costs of fuel and food led to increases in the costs of living, which affects those on low incomes

Question 207

What is the cost of living crisis? + lots of facts about it

Answer 207

• Since early 2021, the cost of living, or the amount of money people need for necessities such as food, shelter and energy, has been increasing across the UK
• The number of people in food insecure households rose from from 4.7 million to 7.2 million people between 2021/22 and 2022/23 (House of Commons Library, 2024)
• This means 11% of people lived in food-insecure households in 2022/23, including 17% of children
• Between April 2023 and March 2024, Trussell distributed more than 3.1 million emergency food parcels to people, which is an increase of 94% over the past five years (Trussell Trust, 2004)

Question 208

Why is the cost of living increasing?

Answer 208

Price increases are the result of several factors, such as:

• strong consumer demand for goods; a consequence of the Covid-19 pandemic and lockdowns
• supply chain issues due to consumer demand and higher business costs
• Russia’s ongoing invasion of Ukraine has contributed to soaring energy and fuel prices

Question 209

What is the welfare state?

Answer 209

• Under a welfare state, the government is in charge of providing for the social needs and ensuring the health and well-being of its people
• This is done though providing services and state benefits
• The welfare state was created in the UK as a safety net to safeguard society’s most vulnerable citizens
• Members receive a sufficient income, healthcare, education, housing, and protection for their children

Question 210

What services are provided by the welfare state?

Answer 210

• The National Health Service (NHS) provides health-care services such as GPs, hospitals, opticians and dentists - these are financed by national taxes collected by central government.
• National insurance (NI) benefits
• Non-contributary benefits
• Local benefits

Question 211

What are national insurance (NI) benefits?

Answer 211

National insurance (NI) benefits

• Individuals with paid jobs contribute a portion of their income to the NI scheme
• They can only receive NI benefits in the event of unemployment if they have made sufficient contributions
• Examples of NI benefits include Jobseeker’s Allowance and the state retirement pension

Question 212

What are Non-contributary benefits?

Answer 212

• Non-contributory benefits are available to those who have not made sufficient NI contributions
• Examples include Income Support and Child Tax Credit

Question 213

What are Local benefits?

Answer 213

• Local councils can provide additional benefits
• Examples include housing benefit and education benefits such as free school meals

Question 214

What are the different ways that the Government attempts to address poverty?

Answer 214

Governments attempt to lower the number of people living in poverty by offering financial support through benefits:

• Selective benefits
• Universal benefits
• National minimum/living wage

Question 215

What are selective benefits?

Answer 215

• Selective benefits use a means test to determine who is most in need of financial assistance
• Means tests are carried out to ensure that an individual is in need before the state provides financial assistance
• The amount of financial assistance they receive is determined by their savings and income
• Those who oppose means testing argue that it could keep people in poverty
• This is because their entitlement to benefits may be reduced if their income increases
• They might receive a pay increase, for instance, but this would mean their income is too high to be eligible for benefits - This means that they might not be any better off or perhaps worse off - Some refer to this as the ‘poverty trap’
• Those in need of benefits may not actually claim them despite being entitled to because the claims process is too complex and intrustive

Question 216

What are universal benefits?

Answer 216

• Compared to selective benefits, universal benefits are less likely to stigmatise recipients because they are not means tested
• For example, Child Benefit was available to anyone responsible for a child regardless of their income or savings
• Due to the possibility of paying taxes, some individuals have chosen to opt out, especially those with high incomes (£60,000 since April 2024)

Question 217

What is National minimum/living wage?

Answer 217

Another attempt to address poverty is through the introduction of:

• a National Minimum Wage for those under 21 (£10.00 from April 2025 for 18-20 year olds)
• a National Living Wage for those over 21 years (£12.21 from April 2025)
• It is a criminal offence for employers to not pay someone the National Minimum Wage or National Living Wage or to fake payment records
• Employers can be fined for not paying the minimum wage or taken to court by HMRC

Question 218

What is an evaluation of government attempts to address poverty?

Answer 218

Critics argue that government attempts to address poverty are insufficient due to:

• The unemployment rate for young people aged 16-24 years increasing - Between July and September 2024, the proportion of NEETs was 13.2%
• Many young people continue to be financially dependent on their parents into their 20s and beyond - This suggests that the National Minimum Wage and National Living Wage are not enough
• Zero hours contracts are used to trap workers in low-paid and insecure work, creating social exclusion, poverty and misery for a growing class of people
• Reforms to the welfare state, such as universal credit and the benefits cap, have resulted in some groups becoming welfare dependent
• Food banks are being used more than ever before.
• Between April 2023 and March 2024, Trussell distributed more than 3.1 million emergency food parcels to people, which is an increase of 94% over the past five years (Trussell Trust, 2024)

Question 219

What is the Key study on power and authority?

Answer 219

Weber (1947) on power & authority

Question 220

What is an overview of Weber’s (1947) views of power?

Answer 220

Max Weber (1974) was an influential early sociologist who studied power

• He argued that an individual or group has power when they are able to get what they want despite opposition from others
• In Weber’s view, we exercise power when we influence someone, even against their will

Question 221

What does Weber (1947) say about sources of power?

Answer 221

According to Weber, power is based on coercion or authority

-Coercion entails the use of force or threats, such as torture or violence

• People obey because they believe they have no other option and are compelled to do so against their will
• For example, when an abuser demands to look through their partner’s phone and threatens to use violence if they don’t comply, they are exercising coercive power

-Authority is exercised over people when they willingly agree to obey an individual or group because they see it as the right thing to do

• Force is unnecessary because people consent to power being exercised over them
• For example, a teacher exercises authority over students in the classroom when they willingly answer a question posed to them

Question 222

What does Weber (1947) say about sources of authority?

Answer 222

• According to Weber, those who are under authority recognise the legitimacy of power and agree to it being used against them
• We tend to be deferential towards those with authority
• Weber identified three types of authority
• Weber recognised that an individual’s authority is likely to be a mix of two types of authority
• Teachers, for instance, have rational legal authority, but some may also inspire students and thus have charismatic authority

Question 223

What does Weber (1947) identify as 3 types of authority?

Answer 223

• Traditional authority
• Rational legal authority
• Charismatic authority

Question 224

What is traditional authority?

Answer 224

• This type of authority is based on custom and tradition
• For example, the authority of the monarchy is based on tradition

Question 225

What is rational legal authority?

Answer 225

• This type of authority is based on people accepting a set of laws or rules
• People obey a group or an individual because they agree with the laws or rules that underpin their authority
• Rational legal authority operates within a bureaucracy, i.e. an organisation with a hierarchy and a clear set of rules
• For example, prison inmates accept the prison officers’ authority to monitor them as they know they will be punished if they break prison rules

Question 226

What is charismatic authority?

Answer 226

• This type of authority is based on obeying a leader who has exceptional personal qualities that are inspiring
• Political or religious leaders with charisma are regarded as extraordinary individuals with the power to cause social change
• For example, Martin Luther King Jr (1929–1968) was a charismatic civil rights leader who led the American civil rights movement

Question 227

What are Marxist perspectives on power?

Answer 227

• Marxist approaches see power as closely linked to social class relationships
• The bourgeoisie’s power comes from their possession of the means of production, i.e. land, factories and machinery
• Marxist approaches argue that the bourgeoisie use their power to exploit the proletariat, i.e. the working class
• Because political power stems from economic power, the bourgeoisie also possess political power as a result of their economic dominance

Question 228

What are Feminist perspectives on power?

Answer 228

• Feminist approaches argue that Marxist and Weberian accounts of power do not pay enough attention to gender
• Gender inequality is the most important source of division in society
• Many feminist approaches to the study of power and power relationships focus on patriarchy
• Feminists argue that society is controlled by men who have considerable power within politics and the workplace
• Men generally have a bigger share of wealth and social status
• Women are held back by a glass ceiling, which acts as an invisible barrier preventing women from reaching top positions and earnings due to oppression and exploitation in work, home and state
• Women are under-represented among holders of political power, decision-makers, and senior judges in Britain

Question 229

What is the key study on the patriarchy?

Answer 229

Walby (1990) on patriarchy

Feminist sociologist Walby (1990) focuses on gender inequalities and women’s subordination in society

Question 230

What method did Walby (1990) use?

Answer 230

• Walby reviewed existing research theories from sociology, economics, history and political science
• She also examined secondary sources such as historical data and feminist literature

Question 231

What were Walby’s (1990) findings?

Answer 231

• Walby defines patriarchy as a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate and exploit women
• She described six patriarchal structures that restrict women and help to maintain male domination of society

Question 232

What 6 patriarchal structures did Walby (1990) describe that restrict women + help to maintain male domination of society?

Answer 232

She described six patriarchal structures that restrict women and help to maintain male domination of society:

• Paid employment
• The household
• Culture
• Sexuality
• Male violence against women
• The state

Question 233

What did Walby (1990) say about paid employment?

Answer 233

Whilst in theory the state supports equality between the sexes, women continue to be disadvantaged in the labour market

• Women typically earn less than men and are excluded from better-paid work
• Women tend to have the worst jobs in the labour market
• Women’s lesser participation in the labour force results from material constraints, e.g. their wages are so low that paid work is not worthwhile
• A disparity exists between girls’ better educational performance and their lower status positions in the workplace

Question 234

What did Walby (1990) say about the household?

Answer 234

• Husbands and partners exploit women by benefiting from their unpaid labour in the home
• Women work a triple shift (Duncombe and Marsden), where women who engage in paid work are also more likely to take the lead on domestic tasks and ‘emotional work’ within the family

Question 235

What did Walby (1990) say about culture?

Answer 235

Whilst women have gained more freedom, they continue to be subject to social expectations, which apply different standards to the behaviour of men and women

• For example, culture differentiates between masculinity and femininity
• Femininity is defined in terms of being sexually attractive to men

Question 236

What did Walby (1990) say about sexuality?

Answer 236

• Whilst women have greater freedom to express their sexuality, they do so while subject to double standards
• For instance, women who have multiple partners are usually criticised, but men who have multiple partners are frequently admired by other men

Question 237

What did Walby (1990) say about male violence against women?

Answer 237

• The use or threat of violence discourages women from challenging patriarchal authority
• Male violence is a form of power over women
• Except in extreme circumstances, the state declines to take action against it

Question 238

What did Walby (1990) say about the state?

Answer 238

• State policies and actions relating to gender have changed since the 19th century
• For example, it is now easier to divorce
• While the state is not as patriarchal as it used to be, it continues to do relatively little to protect women from patriarchal power in society
• For example, women still generally receive lower wages than men, and equal opportunities laws, e.g., the Equalities Act 2010, are rarely enforced

Question 239

What was the conclusion of Walby’s (1990) study?

Answer 239

• Walby argued that the nature of patriarchy in Western society has changed
• The gender pay gap and qualifications gap have reduced
• There has been a shift from private patriarchy to public patriarchy

Question 240

What is an evaluation of Walby’s (1990) study?

Answer 240

• Catherine Hakim suggests that the gender pay gap exists as women make a lifestyle choice to leave the labour force to have children
• Critics argue that there have been attempts to recruit more women into politics, e.g., all women shortlists (AWS) were first introduced by the Labour Party in 1997 to address the gender imbalance in parliament
• There are more female MPs in the House of Commons than there ever has been and this was achieved without AWS in the 2024 General Election
• Liberal feminists argue that legal barriers have been removed and more women are reaching top positions than ever before, thus breaking the glass ceiling

Reasons for this include:

• improved educational performance of girls, which has allowed them to reach higher positions in the workplace
• increased opportunities for women in the workplace, allowing them to focus on their careers

Question 241

FINISH THIS - ONLY ONE MORE SECTION DW