Social stratification Flashcards
What is social stratification?
How society is structured in a hierarchy of layers based on factors such as age, gender
Identify and explain one social stratification system
Social class system. This is where it appears you can work hard to achieve a higher class status. For example, an assistant gets promoted to a manager. This system is an open society where status is achieved and social mobility is possible.
Explain the Caste system
Religious social stratification system to do with your behaviour in life. For example, if you do good in your life then your next life you will have a higher status like royalty. In this system society is closed and social positions are ascribed.
Explain four factors affecting life chances
- Class: working class get poorer grades in exams ie due to material and cultural deprivation (Cohen) and labelling -> lower paid jobs like casual work means probably earning minimum wage -> lower life expectancy
- Gender: girls outperform boys in education (ie do better in GCSEs) but are paid lower and are less likely to be in top jobs (glass ceiling) due to patriarchy argued by feminists and sexism, may also be due to gender socialisation, channeling girls into lower paid jobs
- Ethnicity: only 4% of CEOs are minority ethnic groups (glass ceiling) may get poorer grades due to negative labelling and racism
- Religion: negative stereotypes can lead to negative life chances ie 9/11 shows increased islamophobia - seen as folk devils
What laws have been implemented to help reduce inequality with gender?
Equal Pay Act (1970) and Equality Act (2010)
What laws have been implemented to help reduce inequality with ethnicity?
Equality Act (2010)
What is the functionalist theory on social strat
Positive for society.
Society is based on meritocracy and status is ‘achieved’ through hard work and effort ie more ethnic groups going to university
‘Role allocation’ – top roles are filled by those who are able, ambitious and competitive – allows society to run smoothly (organic analogy)
Ignore barriers to social mobility ie racism previously preventing many ethnic groups from going university
What did Davis and Moore argue about social stratification? + criticisms
- Functionalists
- Society needs to place people into roles / social positions that need to be filled (role allocation) for society to operate smoothly (organic analogy) which unequal rewards help to happen, like higher pay and status for being a doctor
Criticism: not all vital jobs have a high salary ie nurses
Marxists argue system is not meritocratic as people are born into generational wealth
Feminists argue not meritocratic as based on gender
-> argue stratification is exploitative
What is the marxist theory on social strat
Negative for society - is not meritocratic
Society is based on conflict and status is ‘ascribed’ – is fixed at birth by class and cannot be changed (generational wealth) and so affects life chances
Top roles ie CEOs are filled by the bourgeoisie and creates inequality with low social mobility as can exploit the proletariat who have less power and a ‘false class consciousness’
What did Marx argue about class stratification?
- Marxist
- Economic factors determine life chances
- Class is an important division, the bourgeoisie have power/control over the proletariat, justified by the ruling class ideology ie ‘free market’ which create a positive image of capitalism
-> w/c are not aware of their exploitation with a ‘false class consciousness’ and experience alienation - Feared polarisation was greater (gap and differences in class greater) so argued needed a proletariat revolution to live in a classless society
-> this revolution has not happened
-> ignores other types of inequality
What did Weber argue about class stratification?
- No theory
- Looked at class based on economic and non economic factors (like status and power)
- Rejects view that proletarian revolution is inevitable
- argues 4 main classes formed in labour market: property owners, professionals, petty bourgeoisie, working class
- Distinguished between three types of power in society – charismatic, traditional and rational legal
- Argues power based on coercion (threat/violence) or authority (consensus)
-> criticised by The New Right as accuse them of bias and ignoring social mobility
What is the feminist theory on social strat
Negative for society.
Society is based on conflict and patriarchy with the top roles being filled by men and women being lower in the hierarchy (glass ceiling)
What is Walbys view of social strat
- Feminist
- Men control women in a patriarchal society shown in 6 patriarchal structures:
- The state doesn’t properly enforce laws implemented to try and tackle like Equal Pay Act 1970, argues women continue to be disadvantaged with paid employment as they are restricted by cultural values like expectations of wives and mothers and glass ceiling
- Patriarchal culture whilst women more liberated continue to be subject to social expectations
How is social class now measured? Give an advantage and disadvantage
NS-SEC (ONS) measures class based on occupation but also includes the unemployed
+ collected by ONS over long time, reliable source
- doesn’t explain why. quantitative data
What are the petty bourgeoisie?
The lower middle class, like small business owners identified by Weber
What is a life chance?
The opportunity of achieving positive or negative outcomes (e.g. healthy/ill, rich/poor) as you progress throughout life
How far do sociologists agree social mobility possible in society?
Functionalists agree - meritocratic system (Parsons)
Marxists disagree - bourgeoisie sustain their wealth generationally and proletariat have a ‘false class consciousness’ and people in top jobs more likely to be privately education (only 7% go to private school) and argue meritocracy is a myth (Bowles and Gintis)
Feminists disagree - women face a ‘glass ceiling’ and are controlled by patriarchy
Sociologists agree to a partial extent
Explain ascribed status
Status fixed from birth. For example, the Queen. In a closed system, not meritocratic.
Explain achieved status
Status is based on hard work effort/meritocratic. For example, a doctor that previously studied for years at medical school now has a high status. Functionalists agree with this and that it is fair for all, in open societies.
What is the glass ceiling?
An invisible barrier in employment that prevents some groups such as women or ethnic minorities from gaining promotions
Explain social mobility
The ability to move up or down the social ladder. For example, getting a promotion. Social mobility like this is possible in an open society.
How did social class used to be measured? Give advantages and disadvantages
Measured dependent on your occupation by the Government
+ Reliable as by the Gov. Collected over a long time.
- Ignored the unemployed. Not valid or representative.
Explain deferred gratification
You are prepared to wait to enjoy the rewards of your hard work. For example, having savings and a pension. Its argued this ideology is common in middle classes, and is opposite to immediate gratification.
Explain elitism
The idea that there are a few rich and powerful people who are able to make sure that they enjoy all the best things in life and that they remain rich and powerful. For example, a prime minister passing laws that benefit himself. They also pass on these advantages to their children, so its generational.
Identify and explain one way in which social class at birth can influence an individual’s future life chances.
W/c may do worse in education. This is because they may be negatively labelled by their teachers. For example, w/c may be labelled as ‘disruptive’ whereas u/c may be labelled as more ‘bright’. As a result, the w/c student may have a self-fulfilling prophecy where they don’t listen in lesson and so do worse in their exams, due to this halo effect.
Identify and explain one policy to tackle inequalities in society
Law enforcement like the Equal Pay Act (1970). Employers must pay men and women same salary when doing same work/ of equal value. For example, a man and a women who are both managers must be paid the same. Walby is critical of this as she argues the State doesn’t enforce these laws properly.
Explain intra-generational social mobility
Movement of an individual between social classes over a persons single lifetime. For example, a w/c person gets a promotion. As a result, they can move up the social strat system and have positive life chances.
Explain inter-generational social mobility
Movement between generations of a family. For example, a father worked in a factory while his son received an education that allowed him to become a doctor. As a result, the son may have more positive life chances than his father.
Explain embourgeoisement
W/c families were becoming more m/c in terms of norms and values as their incomes and standards of living improved. For example, w/c voting for conservative rather than labour and having a more privatised lifestyle. Devine argues this is just because the w/c are losing faith in the Labour Party.
Define affluent
To have a great deal of money
How can you measure embourgeoisement?
Lifestyle choices of families. For example, a w/c family may begin to vote for Conservative. This could shows embourgeoisement as previously w/c would vote for Labour, but Devine argues this is because w/c are losing faith in Labour party.
What did Goldthorpe research?
- study in Luton to find evidence for embourgeoisement
- Found majority of manual workers moved to get more secure and well paid jobs
- Found ‘affluent workers’ had a privatised instrumental attitude towards their work
- Rejected embourgeoisement and could instead be described as a new w/c with home centre domestic lives
What did Devine research?
- study in Luton after Goldthorpe to make a direct comparison
- Found evidence of the working class still being separate and still had working class values
- W/c were geographically mobile to escape unemployment
- This goes against the idea of embourgeoisement and rejected the idea of a new w/c as many had same traditional values as w/c
- Found w/c beginning to lose faith in Labour Party as they felt they weren’t able to deliver a more equal society
How far can it be agreed society is patriarchal?
Agree: Heidensohn - women controlled ‘control theory’ - glass ceiling
Walby - six patriarchal structures
Disagree: Functionalists - meritocratic
Marxists - capitalist society not patriarchal, look at other inequality of class not gender but agree women are exploited
Explain absolute poverty
Someone who lacks the money for basic necessities. For example, not being able to afford housing or food. These individuals live below the poverty line and is also known as ‘primary poverty’
Explain relative poverty
Someones standard of life is less than the majority of the population. For example, they can’t afford an iPhone like their friends. This is Townsend’s preferred method of measuring poverty and is also known as ‘secondary poverty’.
How is poverty measured? Give pros and cons
By the Government using 60% of the median income of the population after housing costs
+ government (ONS) is a trusted source collected over a long time, this means data is reliable
- doesn’t explain why. quantitative statistical data.
Explain the poverty line
A measure of minimum income required to meet the essential cost of living. For example, those that can’t afford necessities such as food are below the poverty line. This was established by Rowntree.
What did Townsend say about poverty + criticism
- No theory
- Preferred measuring poverty through relative deprivation as devised a deprivation index
- Found the government underestimated poverty (6% vs his 22%)
- He ignored lifestyle choices so results are misleading - ie not eating meat each week may be due to veganism
Identify and explain three groups which are more likely to live in poverty
Women. This is because they face a glass ceiling. For example, an assistant can’t get a top job due to sexism at her work so remains having a low paid job. Feminists argue this is due to the patriarchal society we live in.
Lone parents. Children are economic liabilities and the parent only has one source of income. For example, a mother may only be able to feed her children not herself, acting as a shock absorber. Murray is very critical of lone parents.
Minority ethnic groups. This may be due to performing poorer in education. For example, a black student may do worse in their exams due to factors such as labelling. This is because labelling can lead to the self fulfilling prophecy.
Explain reasons why its believed the poor are responsible for poverty
- culture of poverty: incorrect norms and values to get out of poverty ie seek immediate gratification and fatalistic attitudes
- welfare dependency (Murray)
Explain reasons why society is responsible for poverty
- Marxists: class inequality due to capitalism where bourgeoisie exploits proletariat, giving them no opportunities to escape so rich stay rich, poor fall into poverty trap due to welfare state
- Globalisation. Low minimum wage. This only benefits owners of means of production.
What does each perspective argue about poverty?
- Functionalists: inevitable, poverty creates jobs ie social workers, poor help reinforce mainstream norms
- Feminists: mothers are shock absorbers often go without food to protect family so poverty of women is often hidden, women paid less due to glass ceiling reinforcing patriarchy as have to be financially dependent on the breadwinner
- Marxists: result of capitalism which generates extreme wealth for only bourgeoisie giving them more power, only way to remove is for a revolutionary change in society
What does the New Right argue about poverty?
- Murray: undeserving poor remain poor due to a culture of dependency on the welfare state
-> argues there is an underclass: individuals excluded from relative prosperity of wider society. for example, single parents. Murray says key features of the underclass are rising crime and are a burden on taxpayers
What did Murray argue about poverty? + criticism
- There is a growing underclass in British society caused by overgenerous welfare benefits
- Can be seen in three ways – welfare dependency, increased crime rates and loss of traditional mainstream values
- Underclass also a burden on taxpayers
- Ignores economic reasons creating underclass (ie capitalism) and have a lack of evidence to prove this dependency
Describe one way globalisation has impacted poverty
Reduced poverty as more countries are trading that were low income countries. For example, people living in India will now have more job opportunities as American stores like macdonalds open there. This will improve the standard of living, many more people above the poverty line.
What is social welfare + an example of a social policy?
A system in which the state takes responsibility for helping those in poverty. Welfare benefits is an example.
Define privatised instrumentalism
Working class that have more middle class norms and values with more home centredness, seeing work as a means to end. For example, not working overtime. Devine argued there is not enough evidence to support this.
Describe the welfare state
A system in which the state takes responsibility for helping those in poverty. For example, helping single parents by offering welfare benefits. Murray is critical of the welfare state as he argues there is a welfare dependency.
Describe universalistic standards
Where people are judged by the standards of the wider society, which are applied in the same way to everyone. For example, in school each student is judged by the same exam criteria. Functionalists argue this is true, as society is meritocratic.
Describe alienation
Under capitalism, the workers feel cut off and controlled from their work. For example, a w/c worker who has no choice over what they are producing in a factory. This is because of the ruling class ideology which allows the u/c to exploit the w/c, reinforcing capitalism.
Describe aristocracy
A class of privileged people who have hereditary titles. For example Duke and Lady. They are usually wealthy land owners whos status is typically ascribed.
Define assimilation
The process by which immigrants abandon their own culture and adapt their behaviour to fit the norms and values of the dominant culture.
Define bureaucracy
Organisation with a strict hierarchy and set of rules. For example, the government. This is an example of rational/legal source of power.
Describe class alignment
Strong links between class and voting behaviour. For example working class people voting Labour and middle class people voting Conservative. Devine argues more w/c now vote Conservative due to losing hope in Labour (class dealignment).
Describe coercion
Obedience based on force or threat. For example, the police are able to do this by using repressive state apparatus. Weber argues this is a way of exerting power.
Describe environmental poverty
A way of measuring deprivation in terms of different living conditions. For example, inadequate housing and air pollution.
Describe feudalism
A medieval stratification system with King/Queen at the top. For example, Queen Elizabeth I and below her are her courtiers and nobles. This was a more closed system, where mobility was restricted.
Define functionally important roles
Key positions in society for it to run smoothly (social cohesion). For example, a nurse. A functionalist concept (Davis and Moore)
Describe instrumentalism
An attitude to something where it is a means to an end. For example, a w/c worker just working to get their wage and not working overtime to get work done. Goldthorpe argued the ‘affluent workers’ showed this attitude.
Define the ‘affluent worker’
W/c that are having more middle class attitudes, but for their own benefit to gain luxury items
Describe the poverty trap
People can be trapped in poverty due to the welfare state only providing enough benefits to be above the poverty line. For example, an employed person receiving benefits could be worse off after a wage rise if they now earn too much to qualify for benefits. Murray argues this is a burden on taxpayers, causing a culture of dependency which undermines traditional independence.
Define the ruling class ideology
A set of dominant ideas in society that distort reality and serve the interests of the bourgeoisie, presenting capitalism in a positive light
Describe the underclass and one key feature of them
Refers to a group whose norms and values are different from those of mainstream society and may experience long term poverty, below the w/c. For example, single parent families. Murray is critical of the underclass as he argues they are a burden on taxpayers and are responsible for rising crime rates, lack of male role models also undermines traditional family roles and inadequately socialises children
Describe traditional sources of power
Inherited power. For example, the monarchy. These are based on established norms and values, argued by Weber.
Describe charismatic sources of power
Shown by a leader with influencial qualities. For example, a dictator like Hitler. Weber argues they may use coercion.
Describe rational legal sources of power
Shown by organisations through laws, rules and regulations. For example, the government. Weber argues this is an authority way of exerting power, leading to consensus obedience.
Explain two groups that have power in society
- Men have power over women. Ie exploited at home for unpaid work. Walby argues this is a structure enforcing patriarchy (household)
- Ruling class have power over w/c. They can exploit w/c as they own means of production. Marxists argue this due to a capitalist society.
Explain one informal source of power
Pressure groups. For example, BLM movement. Pluralists argue this is critical for democracy and bringing like minded individuals together
Explain one formal source of power
The state/government. Pass laws which influence society, like Divorce Reform Act 1969. This is known as rational legal power.
Define first past the post system
Candidate that wins the most votes which becomes the MP
Define democracy
Power is based on consent, like choosing who to elect from your own free will - freedom of speech
Explain pluralist view to power
- Power should be shared between different political groups
- State should be a ‘neutral referee’, serving everyones interests equally
- View supported by functionalists
Describe dictatorship
One person has power and rules by force and exerting fear. For example, Hitler. Weber argues this is a form of charismatic power and they usually use coercion.
Describe pressure groups/interest groups
Informal groups of power influencing government to change. For example, BLM. Pluralists argue they are crucial for democracy as it brings like minded individuals together.
Explain conflict view on power of the state
- Owners of means of production have power and influence (r/c)
- Political decisions serve needs + interests of r/c. For example, 0 hour contracts. As a result, w/c are exploited.
- Marxists support this view
- Feminists argue state doesn’t properly enforce laws like the Equal Pay Act, so patriarchy continues
Describe economic globalisation
Trade, production and consumption. For example, an American business being set up in Russia. Shows nations becoming more interconnected.
Describe cultural globalisation
Spread of ideas and values globally. For example, fashion trends on social media. Shows nations becoming more interconnected.
Define mobile globalisation
Increasing immigration
Give an impact of globalisation
New job opportunities may reduce poverty
How far do sociologists argue that poverty is still an issue in society?
- Feminists: women still in poverty, acting as shock absorbers and that welfare state reinforces patriarchy by supporting the nuclear family (like tax breaks for married couples)
-> Walby - New Right: dependency culture on welfare state
-> Murray - Functionalists: government policies aimed to reduce poverty and welfare state, poverty simply inevitable and provides jobs ie social workers
Are poverty statistics accurate?
Yes: Functionalists - positive outlook
No: Townsend found 22% vs state 6%, found state underestimating poverty
Describe constituency
Voting for one candidate to become MP. First past post system.
Define deferential
Showing respect to authorities
Define fascism
Beliefs typically blended with some sort of discrimination based on ethnicity. For example, Nazi’s. Far right politically due to their extremist views.
Define direct action
Using power to directly achieve political goals
Define industrial dispute
Disagreement between workers and owners eg due to pay
Define lumpenproletariat
Lack awareness they are being exploited (argued by Marx)
Define oligarchy
A small group of people having control of a country or organization.
Define privatisation
Privatisation is a process where institutions are transferred from being owned by the state (or government) to being owned by private companies.
Define proportional representation
Where an elected MP reflects wider societal attitudes of majority of society
Define surplus wealth
Profit earned by owners of means of production
Define universal benefits
Available to all citizens regardless of income
Define underemployment
Individuals are forced to work in low paying/low skilled jobs
Describe a welfare scrounger/benefit cheat
Someone who asks for things without working for them. Eg collecting benefits as can’t be bothered to go into paid employment. Murray is critical of these types of people, arguing they are a burden on taxpayers.
