Social Responsibility Theories Flashcards
Definition of Bystandarism
Bystandarism: the phenomenon in which individuals do not offer help when other passive bystanders are present despite being aware of another person’s suffering
- The probability of help is inversely related to the number of bystanders. i.e. the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely it is that any one of them will help.
- An individual doesn’t need to see the number of other people present, but they need to perceive that they are present.
Theory of unresponsive behaviour ( decision model )
Latané proposed the idea that an individual’s decision to help or not to an emergency depends upon a series of decisions. Therefore, he constructed the theory of unresponsive behaviour ( decision model) to explain the phenomenon of bystandarism.
Procedures in Latané’s decision model
Procedures in decision model:
1. An event happened– being noticed
2. Help– if it is interpreted as emergency
Not help– pluralistic ignorance
• the assumption that others know better when in fact no one knows how to act
• interpret depends on the group response (others don’t respond, the individual doesn’t respond)
3. Help– takes the responsibility
Not help– diffusion of responsibility
• a form of conformity based on informational social influence
• Decreased likelihood of assistance when the number of bystanders increased
• assume other people will take the responsibility of helping, conform to other people’s action
4. Help– knows appropriate form of assistance
Not help– evaluation of apprehension
• Refuse to help because they are unsure how to help, or feel embarrassed
• More professional helpers are present e. g. doctor
Definition of pluralistic ignorance/ diffusion of responsibility/ evaluation of apprehension
Pluralistic ignorance:
The tendency to rely on the reactions of others when defining an ambiguous situation
Diffusion of responsibility:
The perception that you are not the only one who is responsible for the helping act, especially when other bystanders are present
Evaluation of apprehension : The fear of embarrassment and being judged by others when acting publicly, refuse to help because they are unsure how to help
Essential understanding of arousal, costs and rewards model
Other psychologists argued that helping behaviors are mainly driven by egoistic motivation. Another factor influences bystanderism is the arousal-cost-reward model, which explains bystander behaviour in terms of cognitive and emotional processing. When some event or emergency triggers physiological arousal, a series of mental calculations determine whether someone helps or not.
Social Exchange Theory
Human interactions are based on cost-benefit analysis. People will weigh the “costs” and “benefits” before helping someone. E.g. A person dressed in nice clothing appears to be less of a threat to us than someone who is young and dressed in tattered jeans and a t-shirt.
Stages of cost-rewards analysis
- Unpleasant emotional arousal: the emotional response to the need or distress of others
o Observation of an emergency situation leads to an emotional response to the
need or distress of others e.g. empathy, disgust, fear
o Stimulates helping behaviour, as bystander is motivated to reduce the
unpleasant emotional arousal - Cost-reward analysis: evaluation of the consequences of intervening or not
Limitations of model:
• Assumes that bystanders make a rational cost-benefit analysis rather than acting intuitively on an impulse
• Assumes that people only help for egoistic motives
Synthesis of theories of bystandarism
Both the theory of the unresponsive bystander and the cost-reward model of helping are cognitive models of decision-making where individuals weigh up several factors regarding the emergency situation, consciously or unconsciously, before making their decision to help or not. Both of these models have high predictability of how people will behave in real life emergency situations; however each does have its own limitations. Neither of these models takes into account the influence of personality factors and other socio-cultural factors, which may be of considerable influence in bystanderism.
Prosocial Behaviour
Definition: Positive, constructive, helpful behaviour initiated with the purpose of increasing another person’s physiological or psychological wellbeing (any voluntary behaviour that is intended to benefit others)
Positive, constructive, helpful behaviour initiated with the purpose of increasing another person’s physiological or psychological wellbeing
• Intentional prosocial behaviour referred to as “helping behaviour”
• Acts that are positively valued by society
• Opposite of antisocial behaviour e.g. aggression and violence
Examples: giving donations, rescuing someone in danger, sharing, volunteering for community service
Two types of motivation for prosocial behaviour:
1. Egoistic motivation: engaging in prosocial behaviour with the ultimate goal of personal benefit – believed to account for most acts of prosocial behaviour
2. Altruistic motivation: concern for the welfare of others despite possible costs of acting
Altruism
Definition: (a form of prosocial behaviour, selfless helping) engaging in helping or prosocial behaviour without the expectation of any benefit to oneself.
“personal sacrifice on behalf of others” (Gintis et al 2003)
• The performance of prosocial action without expectation of benefit for oneself
• In social psychology: a subcategory of helping behaviour
• In evolutionary psychology: behaviour that benefits other organisms but has some
costs, which are measured in terms of reproductive fitness
• Opposite of antisocial behaviour e.g. aggression and violence
Biological– Kin selection theory
• Evolutionary basis of altruism
⇒ Based on the assumption of the biological level of analysis that behaviour is
inherited
• Organisms may be driven by the desire to maximize survival potential of their genes rather than themselves.
• The degree of altruism depends on the genetic similarity of individuals in a group
• People are more likely to help closer relatives than distant relatives
“selfish gene theory” (Dawkins)
• Any organisms will try to maximize its “inclusive fitness” in order to guarantee that one’s own genes will be passed on to future generations
• There is an innate drive for the survival and propagation of one’s own genes
• Altruistic behaviour provides a guarantee that an individual’s genes will be present in
future generations
Evaluate methodology of research on social responsibility/ altruism
- Based on anecdotal data– stories told by those who witnessed the event or the altruist
- The information might not be reliable–cognitive biases of memory distortion and demand characteristics.
Evaluation of Kin Selection Theory
Strengths:
- Supported by empirical evidence
- Supported by mathematical computer simulations
Limitations:
- Relies on the assumptions that humans are able to identify kin from strangers–lacks explanation of why individuals help strangers
- Human based on many factors, not just blood relation e.g. shared developmental environment, familiarity and social bonding
- Debate surrounding if there is a real advantage in risking own survival, reducing access to resources or increasing another’s likelihood of reproducing
- Need to conduct research in a more controlled setting
Difference between egoistic helping and altruistic behaviour
- Egoistic helping–helping to relief one’s personal distress (ease of escape)
- Altruistic behaviour– having an empathetic concern (sympathy, compassion)
Empathy-altruism theory
Essential understanding: individuals with high-empathy will help no matter what, individuals with low-empathy will help only when the escape from the empathy demand is difficult
Empathy definition (in context of theory): includes a range of feelings that are focused on others rather than oneself, including sympathy, compassion, warmth and tenderness (feel what others feel)
- Contradicts the evolutionary theory that altruism is purely for the sake of self-interest (the assumption that all helping behaviour is egoistic)
- Based on the idea that an emotional response (empathy) is generated when another person is perceived to be in need
- If the person who needs help is more similar to oneself, have prior contact (friendship, kinship), the observer is more likely to have empathy and help
