Social Psychology Flashcards

Question

Interdependence theory

Answer 1

social exchange theory applied to intimate relationships (economic principles) - rewards and costs determine satisfaction - stay vs leave - can be tangible/material (financial assistance) or intangible/social (feeling loved, dependance) - Magic 5 (rewards) to 1 (cost) ratio **(Gottman & Levenson, 1992**) - predicts relationship satisfaction - outcome = rewards - cost

Answer 2

an intimate emotional bond to someone seen as providing protection, comfort and support (**Bowlby** - cradle to grave) - forming bonds and distressed if unavailable - evolutionary function - caregivers close to infants - normative attachment process - proximity maintenance, secure base, safe haven

Answer 3

- Investment model - commitment (Rusbult et al., 1998) - satisfaction vs alternatives vs investment (into relationship) → commitment → stay vs leave/pro-relationship behaviours - commitment helps to protect and maintain relationships (derogate alternatives (partners), accommodate, sacrifices)

Answer 4

low anxiety and low avoidant - proximity seeking = support, protection, relief of distress (turn to others), distress = manageable, more stable and satisfying relationships

Answer 5

low anxiety and high avoidance - value self-reliance and independence, avoid support and distressed, expect relationship failure - lack intimacy

Answer 6

high anxiety and low avoidance - hypervigilant about loss and rejection, demanding closeness

Answer 7

high anxiety and high avoidance - withdraws when upset, poor personal and social adjustment

Answer 8

- only 50% of sacrifices were detected by partner, also “false alarms” when partner perceives a sacrifice by the other that the doer doesn’t report - Seeing sacrifice boosts gratitude, missed sacrifices lead to feelings of underappreciation (both feel less satisfied) - Feeling grateful benefits health and happiness, benefits quality and longevity of relationships - buffers insecurely attached individuals’ satisfaction

Answer 9

motives, goals, beliefs, opinions or behaviour interfere with those of another - married have more than dating couples - individual differences - how they approach conflict that matters - missing responsiveness

Answer 10

- Criticism - attacking personality/character rather than airing disagreements on behaviour - Contempt - tearing down or being insulting - disrespect and disgust - acting superior - Defensiveness - Denying responsibility, excuses, cross-complaining - Stonewalling - refusal to respond - withdrawal from conflict, relationship and partner

Answer 11

- Transgressions - hurtful actions by those we trust and did not expect to act like that e.g. lying, breaking trust - Forgiveness - helps to repair relationship, promotes victims personal well-being, but can go too far “doormat”

Answer 12

- Commitment - motivation to act constructively - Self control - ability to act constructively Commitment and self control predict: - Accommodation - Inhibit destructive impulses, respond constructively when partner behaves negatively - compromising - Staying faithful - forgiveness - inhibiting impulse to ruminate offence

Answer 13

self expansion - in new relationships - declines as relationship continues - routines - we need to engage in activities for self expansion measures of self expansion (Muise et al 2019) - “how much does your relationship allow?” - e.g. ballroom dance class

Answer 14

-commitment, closeness, network support, insecure attachment - contextual predictors: e.g. socioeconomic, divorce laws, age of marriage, expensive weddings, parental divorce, stressful life events + trauma - average 6 months of pain after - shorter than forecasted

Answer 15

- wanting to be single - high quality friendships - perceived social support - societal influences (endorsement of marriage, married friends - stigma, traditional norms)

Answer 16

- stopping at 150V as those who go past 150V go to the end - added psychological screening and an accurate debrief - people still obeyed - added a condition where you saw another teacher quit before the end - personality vs situation - personality predicts when people needs the prods - but not overall compliance - about following orders? - analysis of prods and reactions suggests not - questions what we mean by obedience

Answer 17

- variations between milgram’s conditions varied - found more obedience at Yale (vs Bridgeport) - but due to other factors (10% - 90% obedience) - wanted to isolate specific features - large effect of directiveness of experimenter, indirect influence of teacher, relationship - difference in obedience or something else? (may be more sceptical in different conditions)

Answer 18

- milgram describes obedience but doesn’t explain - agentic state not a theoretical explanation - not just about authority - responsive to other voices - learner, second experimenter, other teachers - reframed to social distance/relationships - obedience in the real world important to study

Answer 19

optical illusion to assess group norm formation and transmission - ambiguous stimuli - Condition A: start alone, then move to group - Condition B: start in group, then move to alone - rapidly converge on a group norm when coming together - norms stick

Answer 20

- people described as bewildered, fidgeting, trying to look from another angle - people found it unsettling - 76% conform at least once, wrong answer given in 37% of the time - a categorical jump of either conformity or not - not a linear increase - people siding with the group - don’t always give the wrong answer - Adding someone who gives the right answer → conformity rates dropped - leads to doubting reality - as much evidence for independence as obedience

Answer 21

never a perceptive distortion - either a distortion of their own judgment or they thought they were right and still conformed - some deviants confident in own judgments, thought they were wrong but wanted to say what they thought - Asch thought it was morally wrong to conform

Answer 22

- Festinger - we desire to know ourselves - so other members as a source of social comparison - disagreement implies uncertainty Deutsch and Gerard - normative (wanting to be liked) influence and informational (wanting to be right?) influence - Cialdini and Goldstein - unpleasant to feel like a deviant - want to avoid this

Answer 23

Festinger - group cohesion (meaningful group), situational ambiguity

Answer 24

- normative influence should be reduced when more distant to you (face to face vs audio) - increased doubt = increased conformity (informative influence) (stimuli present vs not when statement made) - normative influence stronger when in ‘real’ group (reward vs not for best group) - multiple sources of normative influence - e.g. group and experimenter

Answer 25

- more conformity in collectivist cultures than individualism - conformity increases with female participants - less conformity in US over time (McCarthyism) - conformity decreases when the majority is made up of out group members - less likely to conform with friends

Answer 26

- Asch positions conformity as bad (immoral) - Campbell challenges that (can’t assume everyone is lying) and a group consensus is good even though the group is better - Hodges and Geyer - people trying to balance competing values - Strategies in the responses aim to pragmatically balance these competing issues

Answer 27

- Adapted Asch - 4 naives and 2 confederates - colour judgements - blue slides reported as green by confederates inconsistently or consisely - Asch conformity measures - in trial, manifest, public - later studies used after-image tests (perception of slide colour influences later colour perceptions of later slides) - 32% said green at least once, only consisent confederates influnced public statements

Answer 28

- Moscovici & Personnaz (1980) – after-image effects in blue-green slide paradigm - **Perez & Mugny (1987)** – pro-abortion message portrayed as minority or majority position; no direct effect, but increase in support for birth control (indirect!)

Answer 29

- Martin & Hewstone (2001) - no-one has ever fully replicated the results - Particularly: the after-image studies - Due to Garden of forking paths? - biased/selective analysis - Other explanations – Martin (1998) notes a perceptual phenomenon - where people get more ‘green’ after images anyway if they keep viewing slides

Answer 30

- listened to discussion recordings (minority vs majority group discussion on group rights) - they think they will join the discussion - think thoughts will either be public or private - reported own attitudes - minority groups leads to more attention paid to argument argument

Answer 31

- what makes a minority vs majority group - numerical perspectives - ignores power dynamics (Asch as minority influence?) - reciprocal influence - does moscovici really show it - limits of experiments - ecological validity? - Asch not about opinions

Answer 32

- old-timers vs newcomers, high status or more prototypical, those more committed to the group

Answer 33

- residual negative attitude to outgroup - societal norms discourage “old school” prejudice (expressed in new ways) - minimisation of the effects of or ongoing nature of racism/prejudice - shared interest among theories in individual differences

Answer 34

unfavourable attitude to a social group and its members (Hogg & Vaughn, 2018) - cognitive (beliefs), affective (feelings), conative (behaviours) (variability in definitions) - Direct vs indirect - sexism - hostile sexism (dislike of women), benevolent sexism (positive beliefs about the right kind of women - less positive to those who deviate from social norms)

Answer 35

Explicit - controllable, overt, reflective, monitorable - self report, behavioural manifestations Implicit - reflexive, outside conscious awareness, uncontrollable?, subtle - inferred based on task performance

Answer 36

- Based on reaction times – shorter RT and fewer errors => stronger link between concepts - Black/White, Pleasant/Unpleasant - Have to press a particular key to indicate something is in one of the two categories – which categories are paired change between trials (eg. Black/Pleasant, White/Pleasant) - Differences between RT for different combinations i should indicate prejudice

Answer 37

- symbolic/modern - explaining political conservatives - high in implicit prejudice, low in explicit - Penner et al. (2010) – Black patient and nonBlack physician interactions - Physician reactions? Predicted by explicit measures of racism - Patient reactions? Predicted by implicit measures; particularly negative reaction to aversive profile

Answer 38

- historical context - fascism and right wing ww2 ideologies - explanation - psychoanalytic - Adorno Authoritarian personality - parenting - autocratic and punitive parenting leads to authoritarian personality (like them but scared of them) - ethnocentrism, negative attitudes to minorities ect. - Adorno et al F scale - high on F scale = high authoritarian

Answer 39

white US northerners not expressing authorotarism personality in the same way - less racism for same f scale - culture of prejudice

Answer 40

- authoritarian submission, conventionalism, punitive against deviants - less of a personality type - ideological orientation - high in RWA - social conventions are moral ect. Associations - RWA correlates with prejudice against gay people, immigrants, foreigners ect. - polically conservative = higher RWA

Answer 41

- all human societies organised into group hierarchies (orders can change) - prejudice results - dominant groups maintain power - system wide level processes, person-level processes, intergroup level processes - System wide level processes - forces all societies to enhance/attenuate them (social institutions and legitimising myths can be either)

Answer 42

Person level - aggregated individual acts to help maintain hierarchy Group status - greater social dominance orientation in dominat groups - also makes them more likely to be in dominat groups e.g. police

Answer 43

right wing authority, vs social dominance theory - RWA = more submission to authority in ingroup vs SDO - preferences for hierarchies between groups

Answer 44

- determinants of intergroup attitudes and behaviour lie in the objective intergroup situation (not intrapsychic process

Answer 45

- 4 Phases - initial interaction (whole group) - group formation (best friends placed in outgroup, seperate activities) - intergroup competition (overall winning group takes prize) - superordinate goals(/positive interdependence) - methods and measures - observations of group behaviour, friendship choices, intergroup evaluations in min-experiments - findings - hostility between groups, higher friendship ratings in own group after competition (35%→92%) and lower for out group (65%→8%), friendship more leveled after co-operation, less (76%) for own group and more (24%) for out group

Answer 46

- Phases - 1- generated intergroup history (co-operation, independence, competition) - 2- co-operating over superordinate goals - success/failure - DV = liking for outgroup members - groups like outgroup more after phase 1 but after 2 - like outgroup more with success and less after failure

Answer 47

- prejudice can occur without competition (different summer camp groups want to compete before even meeting) - intergroup behaviour not solely motivated by instrumental considerations - can run counter to self-interest

Answer 48

- was jewish - wanted to understand Nazis - how does irrational prejudice start - minimal group studies - assigned to 1 of 2 groups (sometimes even told its chance) - no history of conflict/interactions - led to private cubicles - give points randomly to others - distribution strategies - fairness, maximum ingroup profit, maximum joint profit, maximum differentiation - in-group favouritism, mere categorisation effect

Answer 49

social categories simply and bring order to the world - provide a basis for identity - people strive to achieve/maintain a positive identity - want our group to be positively distinct - threats cause people to want their group to be more distinct

Answer 50

- immigrants seen as immigrants based on national group membership, greater national identification should result in greater immigrant prejudice - national attachment (how much you care) does not necessarily lead to immigrant prejudice - nationalism should - patriotism shouldn’t link to prejudice

Answer 51

- realistic threat - threat can arise as group members perceive themselves to be competing with another group for scare resources/feeling endangered - symbolic threat - group members can feel threatened if they perceive outgroup as a threat to cultural values - realistic and symbolic associated with negative outgoup attributes (Riek et al)

Answer 52

**contact hypothesis** - Allport - interacting between individuals belonging to different social groups can reduce ethnic prejudice and intergroup tension (one of more popular strategies) - 4 conditions - equal status, pursuing common goals cooperatively, backed by social and institutional support, acquaintance potential

Answer 53

- Pettigrew and Troop 2006 - massive meta analysis - contact linked to reduced prejudice - variety of DVs (emotions/attitudes/stereotypes) - 4 conditions facilitating rather than necessary - anxiety, enhanced empathy, reduced perception of threat

Answer 54

- negative intergroup contact can occur and increase prejudice - asymmetry hypothesis - negative intergroup contact more significant than positive contact - positive contact for disadvantaged group members reduces perceptions of inequality - less likely to engage in collective action to challenge inequality - Dixon et al 2012

Answer 55

diversity training, peer influence, cognitive and emotional training, entertainment and media (Paluck)

Answer 56

generalised beliefs about or expectations from members of a group - can be changeable - sometimes describe groups on average accurately - category-based beliefs - applies to individual people - stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination → not interchangeable

Answer 57

- categorising for efficiency (cognitive shortcuts) - we act as cognitive misers - limited cognitive availability motivational purpose - feel positive about group identity in comparison to other social groups (social identity theory - Tajfel and Turner)

Answer 58

- participants presented with info from a legal trial - drew on stereotypes suggesting defendants guilt, info was ambiguous - either morning or evening people - tested in morning or evening (tested at either a convenient or inconvenient time) - did find that when cognitive resources scarce (low energy) more likely to use stereotypes and find defendant guilty

Answer 59

- stereotypes about groups contain 2 underlying dimensions - warmth and competence (depending on status and competition) - stereotypes can be reduced to 2 dimensions, how groups are stereotyped depends on how we perceive their social status (status and competition)

Answer 60

- consequences of being stereotyped as warm? - members of warm groups not being warm punished? e.g. women - rated how warm, happy, carefree and relaxed people are from verbal description and no photo/smiling photo/non-smiling photo - non-smiling women rated worse, worse than male non-smiling and no photo woman (non-smiling man and no photo man rated the same) → double standard - punishment/cost for positive stereotype

Answer 61

- influence where we direct attention - pay batter attention to stereotype consistent info - influence how we interpret information - interpret ambiguous info in line with stereotypes - influence what we remember - recall more stereotype consistent info - forget otherwise - influence how we gather info - ask question to confirm our beliefs

Answer 62

- participant interviewers were led to believe that an interviewee was either introverted or extroverted - selected questions from a preferred list - chose questions likely to confirm expectations

Answer 63

examined the transmission of stereotypes in communication chains - inconsistent information gradually disapears but consistent remains intact - ‘shared’ nature of stereotypes - stories become more stereotypical as they get passed along - cognitive processes - remember consistent info and pay more attention - social processes - want to establish common ground - share info likely to be expected - signal we’re on the same page

Answer 64

- linguistic category model (Semin and Fiedler, 1988) specific → becoming more abstract - (descriptive action verb → interpretative action verb → state verb → adjective) - language abstraction propagates stereotypes - positive ingroup and negative outgroup behaviour presented as enduring and typical - repeatedly applied to members of a group → stereotyping

Answer 65

- italy horse racing, supporters of competing teams, describe cartoon scenes (desirable or undesirable, ingroup or outgroup) - how abstract is the language shown - (e.g. drugged, damaged, detests, unfair) - more abstract language used for positive ingroup and negating outgroup behaviours - participants read descriptions without the cartoons → consequences: more abstract = more information it gives us on their character and more likely to be repeated

Answer 66

occurs when people believe they might be judged in light of a negative stereotype about their social identity and that they may inadvertently act in some way to confirm a negative stereotype of their group - awareness can give rise to concerns if the self will be judged against those standards

Answer 67

- examined performance on an intellectual ability test with ethnicity salient or not (asked demographic information before taking a verbal ability test in salient condition) - did worse when demographic info salient

Answer 68

male and female participants (uni students) selected with the same maths ability, told the test would show gender differences or told it would not - women did worse when told it would show gender differences

Answer 69

Stereotype activation → physical stress, self-monitoring, thought suppression → affects performance

Answer 70

- **reducing perceptions of threat** - individuating (thinking of selves as individuals not as members of a group), making multiple identities salient, perceptions of stereotyped qualities as malleable (e.g. intelligence = practice) - **strengthening coping** - self-affirmation, mindfulness - **Creating identity-safe environments** - role models, single-group environments

Answer 71

- a primordial, collective unconscious → guides sentiments and behaviour - Gustav Le Bon, 1895 → racial unconscious, spread of common behaviour takes places through *contagion*

Answer 72

- assumptions, not observations - can’t explain non-violent crowds - evidence - relied on secondary, selective and partial evidence and took crowd violence out of context (ignored self defence)

Answer 73

Asch sherif - Autokinetic effect experiment - optical illusion that single point of light in dark room seems to move, had to estimate how much → group norm - Turner and Killian 1957 - emergent norm theory - extraordinary novel situation → interaction → a norm emerges → shared norm allows behaviour to become collective - talking not always necessary

Answer 74

Turner - social identity = cognitive mechanism which makes group behaviour possible, self categories at different levels - self categories = fit (comparative and normative) x perceiver readiness - most influential group members are prototypical

Answer 75

self stereotyping - in terms of social identity and groups norms, values, beliefs and interests (not individual values)

Answer 76

- police raid on a local cafe, crowd took control, only targeted police and geographical limits, shared social identity

Answer 77

- modern group mind - anonymity, loss of self and self-control - lab experimental - Postmes and Spears (1998) meta analysis found only weak evidence - little proof for loss of self, strong relationship between anonymity and conformity to local group norms

Answer 78

Magh Mela - a Hindu festival in India (a month long) - semi structured interviews (in Hindi/local dialects), 30-80 minutes - 37 pilgrims - tended to be higher caste and older (40-83) - shared social identity, recognition (fellow in group members), validation (confirms that there is value in being there), solidarity (+ support)

Answer 79

- sees that other group members share social categorisation and identity - others see them as a fellow - a sense of connection and intimacy - even with strangers - more enjoyment of others close physical presence (Novelli et al 2010) - reduced disgust at others’ bodily odours (Reicher et al 2016)

Answer 80

- people are passionate in crowds (madness?) - Durkheim - meaningful activities - good reasons for strong emotions - support → empowerment + validation

Answer 81

Hopkins + Mela - questionnaire found that strong emotions -> feeling they could enact their collective spiritual identity and acts - associated with joy and feeling good Neville and Reicher 2011 - Dundee united supporters - experiencing a validation of their emotions - augmented strength of emotions when watching football with others vs alone

Answer 82

occasion when the amount of people strains the planning and response resources of the community/city/nation hosting the event e.g. Olympics, World Cup, Hajj (international)

Answer 83

stampedes? (not running, too many people) and panic? (consequence not cause, bad planning) - crushing extremely rare at Hajj

Answer 84

- Mela - Tewari et al 2012 - Pilgrims has an increase in well-being - Mela good for you (despite densly populated and poor sanitary conditions, loud) - music events - social connections → wellbeing, Dingle et al 2021 - memory and attention affects and social bonding (effects from music and from enjoying the music with others) - Koefler et al 2024 - shared positive emotions → continued happiness a week after

Answer 85

compared attendees with matched sample - heightened social identification, more prayer rituals, mechanisms = shared identity and being able to enact social identity - also better health

Answer 86

- Pakistan’s lottery for attending the Hajj, random selection of winners and losers (1605 people) - those who attended more committed to Muslim identity, measured in behavioural evidence (more likely to pray), more favourable attitudes to women and other groups, greater belief in equality - mechanisms? was it contact?

Answer 87

- survey of 1194 pilgrims during Hajj, many different languages and countries - perceived cooperation indirectly predicted increased positive attitudes to outgroups - positive experience and united crowd indirectly predicts Muslim identification and positive attitudes to outgroups

Answer 88

- positive effects not found in every crowd e.g. shopping crowd - high levels of trust and enjoying proximity linked with risk of spreading infectious diseases

Answer 89

- a group member engages in group action, when acting as a representative as a group, action directed at improving the condition of the entire group - any action that promotes the interests of one’s ingroup or is conducted in political solidarity - an individual can engage in collective action alone and can defend other groups - can be non-violent or violent - may seek to challenge an existing hierarchy, defend or enhance an existing hierarchy or create a new one

Answer 90

- greater perceived injustice associated with greater engagement in collective action (van Zomeren et al., 2008) - meta analysis - for violent and non-violent - can be social, economic, political, environmental

Answer 91

- what matters is people’s subjective sense of deprivation, rather than objective (smith et al 2012) - social comparison (with outgroup, past situation, desired situation for ingroup) - awareness of shared grievances - egoistic or fraternal grievances

Answer 92

- the belief that it is possible to address grievances through collective action (Mummendey et al 1999) - predicts from (van Zomeren et al., 2008) - meta analysis

Answer 93

- part of self concept derives from knowledge of social group and emotional significance of membership (Tajfel) - social identity approach - individuals take collective action on behalf of groups they identify with

Answer 94

Identity predicts grievances and predicted efficacy and all predict collective action - social identity has direct and indirect effects on collective action

Answer 95

- group based anger towards outgroup → non violent forms - violent forms may be from contempt (Van Zomeren found anger as most)

Answer 96

- identity pathway (intrinsic motivation) - instrumental pathway (cost-benefit calculations - extrinsic motivation) (collective motive, social motive, reward motive) indentity pathway - social identity approach, politicised identification instrumental pathway - expectancy value theory (results from value of expected outcome of behaviour)

Answer 97

collective motive - value benefits that the movement is seeking to acquire, expected achievement from collective action social motive - happens within social networks - more connected = encourage protesting, whom they care about so more likely to take part - normative motive reward motive - personal outcomes affect whether people take part - more motivated if expecting personal benefits, less motivated if expecting losses from engagement (e.g. losing job)

Answer 98

collective benefits of social movement participation - insufficient because people may free ride so need selective benefits for participation (incentives) (assuming other people will do it)

Answer 99

group members engage in conflict designed to change the status quo through collective effort - aims to improve whole group outcomes

Answer 100

group members can change groups (/pretend) - changes individual status (into higher group) - accepts that one group is higher e.g. up a class

Answer 101

group members redefine the intergroup comparison by representing the ingroup in positive ways (can benefit psychological wellbeing but doesn’t improve/change position of group) e.g. downward comparison

Answer 102

- the more that you take in social creativity strategies, the less involved in collective action you will be german people compared themselves (middle class) to the rich on attribute of warmth, participants showed less interest in collective action after comparing their group on warmth

Answer 103

german unemployed people (downward comparison, upward comparison and control) - each given story fitting with condition, unemployed in downward comparison less interested in collective action, unemployed in upward comparison more interested in collective action

Answer 104

to work out if positive redefinitions of ingroup identity characteristics on which lower status is based won’t undermine collective action intentions - told either that differences in german immigrants are important and good or not - made no difference in collective action intentions

Answer 105

“the agenda for dominant groups is to create an ideological cocoon whereby they can define their discriminatory actions as benevolent” - positive account of nature to achieve goal - e.g. women excel at childcare - effective to stop them having careers outside the home

Answer 106

- necessary to punish women who challenge male dominance and reward and idealise women who adopt traditional gender roles and submit to male dominance - hostile sexism and benevolent (e.g. holding open doors - paternalistic - qualities of purity, fragility - justify a pedestal and why women are not capable and should not have the same rights as men) - work together - both rooted in patriarchy, exaggerate differences between genders, demonstrated in many cultures and correlate positively

Answer 107

- experiment - either read hostile/benevolent/controls statements - told it was a memory study - dependent variable was collective action tendencies - less collective action for benevolent condition - gender specific system justification as mediator eg. think system is fair

Answer 108

- croatia, hungary, latvia, lithuania, poland - Institutional sexual stigma/heterosexism/ structural stigma - countries differ in institutional sexual stigma - online survey - IV was institutional sexual stigma - DV was collective action intentions - sexual stigma in legal system suppressed collective action intentions - mediators - internalised homophobia and ingroup identification

Answer 109

- feminist identification predicts participants in feminist activism, stigmatisation leads women to reject association as feminists - both men and women rate feminists lower than regular women

Answer 110

- crowds that have turned violent have been the target of pathologising (presented as a sickness) representations - mob mentality (group), criminal and riff raff (individual) - Arab spring 2011 - the government portrays protesters as mindless terrorists - delegitimises action, puts others off joining - governments see no problem in status quo, only with crowds - so then crowds can only be dealt with by force

Answer 111

- Theorising based on stereotypes - power differentials, importance of exploring (exploring different ideas) - Methodological issues - working in multiple languages comparability of constructs, response styles, cultures are not individuals

Answer 112

- Emic approaches - concepts should come from culture you’re studying - Etic approaches - imposed etic - imposing own constructs on others - might be distorting their view vs derived etic - first looking at emic ideas and building to get a comparable point

Answer 113

- Cross cultural psychology - explaining differences in psychological processes - Cultural psychology - understanding logic of cultural systems - Indigenous psychologies - empowering others to develop ideas - emic - need to help psychology to happen in other parts of the world before comparing - decolonising psychology - Intercultural psychology - contact between cultures

Answer 114

- mapping variations in culture across societies - interdisciplinary social science field - macro-level of analyses - large multinational surveys - how cultural norms of societies differ - not individuals - societies provide cultural contexts for individuals’ psychological functioning

Answer 115

- IBM (HERMES) employee surveys - Originally conducted 1967 and 1973 - > 116,000 respondents in 72 countries - Questions about job satisfaction, perceptions of work situations, personal goals and beliefs - Wide variety of response formats - secondary analysis to look for dimensions of cultural variation

Answer 116

- Robinson’s 1950 paradox - immigration in north america and literacy rates, across 50 states, those with higher proportions of immigrants have higher rates of literacy, but immigrants individually have lower rates - -when you analyse same data at levels you may get different findings and relationships - Ecological fallacy - falsely extrapolating group level findings to individual level of explanation - Reverse ecological fallacy - wrongly attributing properties of individuals to cultures

Answer 117

country mean agreement with all items - subtract/control in analyses

Answer 118

- Individualism vs collectivism - work goals, correlated with economic development - Masculinity vs Femininity - achievement vs relationships (toughness/softness) - Power distance - how hierarchical societies are - Uncertainty avoidance - how uncomfortable members feel about uncertainty

Answer 119

- item content - translation and survey procedures - sampling of individuals and societies - historical change - inconsistent data and ‘expert ratings’

Answer 120

International project - Student participants in 22 nations - 40 values proposed by Chinese social scientists and/or taken from Chinese philosophy (similar to Hofstede but based on chinese culture and values) Statistical analyses - Items adjusted for response style - Ecological-level factor analysis confucian work dynaism - renamed as long-term orientation - focus on future (perseverance) vs past and present (tradition)

Answer 121

- no evidence to replicate uncertainty avoidance and masculinity - long term orientation -> monumentalism (stable and proud) vs flexibility (humble, changeable) - individualism indistinguishable from low power distance

Answer 122

- Research into structure of values - Individual and cultural levels of analysis - List of 56 values rated for importance “as a guiding principle in my life” - Items derived from diverse sources - Initial study sampled teachers and students - Eventually >80,000 participants in 82 countries

Answer 123

Within-cultures - Openness to change vs. conservation - Self-transcendence vs self-enhancement Between-cultures - Autonomy vs. embeddedness - Harmony vs. mastery - Egalitarianism vs. hierarchy

Answer 124

- western and non-western cultures differ in how they see them selves - independent and interdependent self-construals - differences in self, of others, and interdependence of the 2 - independence - we see ourselves as different to others, boundaries, self esteem = ability to express self - Interdependence - self overlaps, connected with social context, self esteem = ability to maintain harmony

Answer 125

- cognition - participants chose dispositional theories over situational (more so in US than Japan) - emotion - US more likely to feel pride/anger, Japan more likely to feel emotions aimed at others e.g. friendliness - motivation - symbolic self-inflation - US see self as more important than others, Japan saw themselves as equal

Answer 126

- - National cultural → self construals → cognition, emotion, motivation - self construals explain differences but these explained by national cultrual, no measures of self construals

Answer 127

- 86 Euro-American and 417 Asian-American uni students - Questionnaire - self construals and embarrassability - Asian americans more susceptible to embarrassment, less independent and more interdependent self construals - self construals predicted embarrassment and explained group differences - mediation - culture → self-construal → embarrassability - found to be an unusual finding - measurement/need to adjust theory?

Answer 128

Japan not collectivist - stereotype from WW2, self-sacrifice for country e.g. Kamikaze

Answer 129

- exploratory FA and then a confirmatory FA, adjusting for response styles - no support for 2 factor model - but 7 factors - suggested more methods for independence

Answer 130

- Kitayama - implicit cultural mandate vs self construal (supposedly west independent - west vs rest) - lots of different types of interdependence - focusing on other-construals (about others) (attributing ambition to dispositions or situation)

Answer 131

- hong kong bi-culturals Cover story: “Two unrelated studies” 1. Priming with Western or Chinese images 2. Measure attributions - Western primes → dispositional inferences - Chinese primes → situational inference (west more dispositional)

Answer 132

- expression of emotion among US and Japanese - short film of bodily mutilation either by self or with others, video expression videoed and coded - alone both nationalities showed disgust, but with others present Japanese didn’t show disgust - negative emotional display risks harmony

Answer 133

- differences in display rules for positive and negative emotion - collectivism = positive to ingroup - individualism-collectivism across US, Japan, Russia, South Korea accounted for 30% of differences in display rules

Answer 134

- US participants judged high intensity expressions as indicating less intense experience than expression - Japanese judged low intensity expressions as indicating more intense experience than expression - individualism-collectivism measure accounted for individual but not cultural differences - norms to express emotions differ

Answer 135

- tight cultures have many strong norms and a low tolerance of deviant behaviours, loose cultural have weaker social norms and higher deviance tolerance - tight cultures more adaptive in a threatening environment, tight norms to cope - collected national statistics - ecological and historical threats, societal institutions and practices → psychological adaptations - tight cultures did have more threats eg. lower food and water supplies and stronger laws eg. closed media, more police

Answer 136

- selecting mates in 37 cultures - similar profile across cultures - most desirable characteristics - mutual attraction - love, dependable, emotional stability and maturity, education - greatest cultural variation in chastity

Answer 137

- would you marry someone who met your needs but you don’t love? - higher no score, correlation with affluence - predicted individualism-collectivism score

Answer 138

- love most important than status and resources less - dependability and stability vs health and good looks - education vs desire home and children - sociability vs similar religion - national averages correlated with affluence (first = richer countries and second = poorer)

Answer 139

- Eros (romantic), mania (possessive), agape (selfless love), ludus (game playing), pragma (shopping list love), storge (friendship love) - different types in different countries and cultures - friendship love stronger in poorer societies

Answer 140

- how much choice people have to join/leave relationship groups - online survey - lower in subsistence types e.g. rice farming cultures, lower in places with high threat, greater investment in relationships with lower RM

Answer 141

aim to map context of cultural differences using culture-level rather than aggregated indicators - Georgas et al 2004 - eco-cultral clusers to predict psychological psychological dimensions e.g. citizen mean life satisfaction scores - Key findings centered on affluence (greater individualism, life satisfaction and lower power distance) and religion (cluster differently e.g. power distance, uncertainty avoidance)

Answer 142

Modernisation (Inglehart and Baker 2000) - economic development/industrialisation - changes in eco-cultural framework, cultures expected to adapt to new context - prediction - cultural beliefs become more secular and rational Post-Modernisation - in context of economic prosperity - manufacturing → service economy - prediction - cultural beliefs and values become post-materialistic - less focus on survival (needs met) and more on self-expression

Answer 143

- national samples in over 100 countries - traditional → secular rational values e.g. lower respect for authority, god less important - survival → self expression values e.g. homosexuality more accepted, quality of life more important

Answer 144

- plural societies (migrants, refugees, tourists - voluntary/forced, sedentary/mobile, permanent/temporary - global communications

Answer 145

- different cultural groups coming into contact and changing cultural patterns - one group usually changes more (acculturating group vs receiving society) minority vs majority

Answer 146

- Adaptation processes - affective, behavioural, cognitive - Acculturation strategies - changes? (practices, vales, identifications) - Intergroup relations - power differentials, peaceful/hostile - Cultural changes - both groups, emergence of new cultures

Answer 147

Integration possible - good relations but cultural maintenance Marginalisation - no relationships or cultural maintenance - individuals measured eg. preferences for contact - Berry et al - 4000 young immigrants, 30 ethnic groups, 13 nations - 4 predicted grouping - participants tend to prefer integration → best psychological outcomes (Marginalisation worst)

Answer 148

- Affective - psychological well-being - psychologicaladaptation - Behavioural - learning effective social skills, social difficulties (everyday functioning) - Cognitive - beliefs, values and cultural identity

Answer 149

- living with multiple cultural identities **bicultural identity integration (Benet-Martinez et al 2002)** - perceptions (harmony vs conflict), strategies (blending vs compartmentalising) - integration, especially harmony, predicts well-being

Answer 150

- Berry et al (2006) distinguished settler (australisa, US) vs non settler (UK, Sweden) - integration more common in settler, separation predicts psychological adaption better in non-settler, varies with culture of origin

Answer 151

Multiculturalism - integration, needs policy and values to support Segregation - separation of minority group and rejection Melting pot - assimilation, (have to drop culture) - can become ‘pressure cooker’ Exclusion - marginalisation, extreme = ethnocide

Answer 152

- majority may feel threatened - different practices could undermine distinctiveness, depending on how national identity defined - realistic threats to social dominance - perceived competition/loss of privileges - reject minority members or identity expressions

Answer 153

- rejected by majority - perpetual foreigner syndrome - assimilation required but not possible - segmented assimilation - to a pan-ethnic minority identity eg. latina - reactive ethnicity - rejection → identification → wellbeing (when group is rejected they will increase identification)

Answer 154

- intercultural relations on global scale - not geography dependent - all cultural groups inhabit broader global context (e.g. Americanisation) - local and global cultural identities - pressure to maintain cultural differences - loss of distinctiveness = loss of identity, anti-globalisation movement, tourist gaze values authenticity, westernised identity can also be distinctive

Answer 155

- problematic to treat nations as self-contained sociocultural systems (international mobility, international mass communication) - cultural differences persist - development in parallel, maintaining cultural distinctiveness