Social Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Automatic Thinking vs Controlled Thinking

A

Automatic = quick, not conscious, no deliberation of thoughts or intentions
Controlled = errorful, deliberate, carefully selecting the right course of actions, thoughts about the self and the world

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2
Q

Schema

A
  • Bartlett 1932
  • Mental structures people use to organise knowledge about the social world
  • Influence how people think, notice and remember
  • Hierarchal
  • Scripts: encompass knowledge / impressions of others, ourselves, social roles and events
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3
Q

Confirmatory Hypothesis Testing

A

Snyder and Swann 1978
- Selectively seeking info which supports one’s belief

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4
Q

Impression Formulation

A

Nativist View = mostly innate, emphasis on genes or evolution
Empiricist View = through senses, experiences and learning
Kantian Synthesis = experiences through schemas

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5
Q

Asch’s Configural Model

A
  • People make holistic judgements based on specific traits
  • Central Traits: characteristics which are disproportionately influential in impression formation
  • 1946: warm vs cold
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6
Q

Judgmental Heuristics

A

Representative - select schema based on similarity between stimulus and schema
Availability - select info based on how easily it comes to mind
Anchor and Adjustment - selects a reference value and then revises it to estimate a conclusion
Conjunction Error - belief that a combonation of events is more likely to happen than 1 singuarly

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7
Q

Counterfactual Reasoning

A

Imagining alternative outcomes to make people feel better. It is easier to mentally undo the past then to deal with the current strong emotions

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8
Q

Rosenthal and Jacobson 1968/2003

A

Famous kindergarten study

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9
Q

Shariff et al 2015

A

Priming with religious beliefs hindered people’s behaviour, but only in those who were religious in the first place

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10
Q

Weber et al 1993

A

Doctors use availability heuristics when diagnosing

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11
Q

Social Perception

A

Thinking about people and their behvaiour helps us to understand and predict the social world

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12
Q

Lingering Influence

A

Primacy Effect = first traits we perceive in othres influence later traits
Belief Perserverance = tendency to stick to an initial judgement even in the face of info which forces us to reconsider
Thin Slicing = drawing meaningful infomation based on a small act
Negativity Bias = bad info has a stronger influence than good
Halo Effect = assumptions that if a person has positive traits, then they will have further positive traits

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13
Q

Attribution Theory

A
  • Heider 1958
  • Need to understand and control the environment so leads to attributions
  • Describes how people explain the causes of behaviour
  • Dispositional vs Situational
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14
Q

Covariation Model

A
  • Kelley
  • To form an attribution, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors
  • CONSENSUS = do different people have similar responses to the same situation?
  • CONSISTENCY = does the same person react similarly over time?
  • DISTINCTIVENESS = does the same person respond simiarly to similar stimuli
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15
Q

Attributional Biases

A

Actor Observer Effect = we perrceive our behaviour as influenced by the situation but others by a personal disposition as we can see within our minds
Fundamental Attribution Error = tendancy to consider behaviour to reflect underlying proprties of people, so overlook situations.
False Consensus = tendency to believe our own behaviours are wideley shared
Self Serving Bias = attribute our own success to our disposition but failures to situation

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16
Q

Jones and Harris 1967

A

Showed fundamental attribution error through writing pro and con essays on Castro, and those who were allowed to choose which view to write said the other person was Pro even though they knew the other person could choose

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17
Q

Dimensions of Emotions

A

Pleasantness scale and arousal scale
- We can distinguish dimensions easily but pleasantness slightly better

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18
Q

Non Verbal cues

A

Small amounts can convery substantial info
- Visible vs Paralinguistic

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19
Q

Lau and Russell 1980

A

Athlets were more likely to say wins were due to internal factors and losses to situations

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20
Q

James 1890

A

Me = self as observed, attitudes, traits, skills, possessions
I = self as observer, more than the sum of its parts, stream of consciousness and awareness

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21
Q

Self Concept vs Self Esteem

A

Self Concept = overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes. Organised into the most complex schema

Self Esteem = global evaluation of the self, feelings of self worth and competence, stable individual difference

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22
Q

4 Functions of the Self

A

1) Self Knowledge = the way we understand who we are and organise info
2) Self Control = the way we make plans and execute decisions
3) Impression Management = the way we present ourselves to others and get them to see us how we want to be seen
4) Self Esteem = maintain positive veiws of ourselves

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23
Q

Sources of Self Knowledge

A

1) Reflected Appraisal = symbolic interactions in which we learn about outselves through others responses (Cooley 1902). Looking Glass Self means we see ourselves the way others do but Shrauger and Schoeneman 1979 said we see ourselves the way we think others see us
2) Feedback = direct accectance or failure, impacts self esteem
3) Self Perception Theory = Bem 1972, when we are uncertain about thoughts/feelings so infer from observing our own behaviour
4) Social Comparison Theory = Festinger 1954, obtain accurate evaluations of the self by measuring ourselves to others. USC v DSC
5) Self Fulfilling Prophecy

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24
Q

Self Control

A

Ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve a long term goal
- Form Implementation Intentions, arrange environments, ensure well rested to reduce depetion effect

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25
Q

Hart and Matsuba 2012

A

Self recognition develops around 18-24 months

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26
Q

Ross and Wilson 2003

A

Social Comparison Theory works with comparing old to current self

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27
Q

Cognitive Dissonance

A

Festinger 1957
- discomfort people feel when they have 2 conflicting cognitions that are inconsistent to self concepts
- threatens self image
- Festinger and Carlsmith 1959 = higher dissonance in group those told to lie and given a reward of $1 than those in a control and those rewarded $20

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28
Q

Postdecision dissonance

A

Feeling discomfort after making a choice between 2 alternatives. This is reduced by emphasising the benefits of the chosen option, then emphasising the negatives of the alternative
- Brehm 1956 = students in a high dissonance group will re-rate scores as higher

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29
Q

Justification of Effort

A

Aronson and Mills 1959 = those who put more effort into a group rated liking of the group higher

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30
Q

Punishment and Self Persuasion

A

If threat of punishment is severe than there is sufficient external justification from refraining from the behaviour but if punishment is less severe then it creates a greater need for internal justification so create a change in attitude via self persvasion

  • Aronson and Carlsmith 1963 had children rate attractiveness of toys then told not to play with them. Those who had a severe threat rated toys as highly attractive but no change in attitude. Those with a mild threat rated them less attractive because they had to change internal justification
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31
Q

Davis and Jones 1960

A

If told someone is shallow and untrustworthy, then participants convinced themselves they did not like that person and they deserved the cruelty they faced

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32
Q

Self Evaluation Theory

A

Experience cognitive dissonance when someone close to us outperforms us in a central area to our self esteem. This can be reduced by becoming less close to them, changing our behaviour so we can outperform them or decide that area is no longer important to us
- Tesser and Smith 1980: more likely to give harder clues to friends than strangers if game had high relevance but switched if game had low relevance

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33
Q

3 Components of Attitudes

A

1) Affective - emotional, feelings of like/dislike
2) Behavioural - observable actions
3) Cognitive - thoughts / beliefs

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34
Q

LaPiere 1930s

A

92% of institutitions served a Chinese couple even though they had all previously said they would not

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35
Q

Mere Exposure Effect

A

If the stimulus is orginally neutral/positive then exposure breeds liking, even if it is subliminal
- Bornstein and D’Agostino 1992: people prefer pictures when shown for 5ms rather than 500ms

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36
Q

Attitude Behaviour Consistency

A

Factors influence the likelihood that people’s attitudes will be consistent with behaviour
- Knowledge: firsthand experience
- Personal Relevance: more investment in yourself
- Attitude Acessibility: easier to bring to mind to act on it
- Behavioural Intentions: specific aims which are intended / planned

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37
Q

Theory of Planned Behaviour

A

Ajzen and Madden 1986, Ajzen 1991
- People’s intentions are best predictors of their deliberate behaviours
-Specific Behaviours, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control

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38
Q

Elaboration Likelihood Model

A

Two ways in which persuasive communication can cause attitude change
CENTRAL = high motivation and ability to think, pay attention to quality and listen, lasting change
PERIPHERAL = low motivation and inability to think, don’t pay attention, focus on surface characteristics, temporary change, may fade

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39
Q

Wilson and Brekke 1994

A

Everyone thinks advertising works better on others them themselves

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40
Q

Conformity

A

Change in one’s behaviour due to the real or imagined presence of another

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41
Q

Informational Social Influence

A

See others as a source of info to guide our behaviour and their interpretation of an ambiguous intepretation is more correct
- Sherif 1936: estimates of light movement grew closer together the more people were in the room

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42
Q

Normative Social Control

A

Conform in order to be liked and accepted, results in public compliance but not necessarily private
- Asch 1951 = 75% conformed at least once with an average of 33% conformity
- However dropped to 23% when response given out loud in a private cubicle (couldn’t see other people) and to 5.5% when at least one person agrees with you

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43
Q

Referent Informational Influence

A

Identify as a group member by following their norms and rules

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44
Q

Milgram 1963

A

It wa estimated by Psych Major,s, middle class adults and panel of psychiatrists that only 1% would reach 450 volts but it was actually 62.5%. Average max shock was 360. 80% continued to give shocks after the confederate cried out in pain.

Conformity dropped when in office building -> teacher placed learners hand on shock plate -> experimenter worked remotely -> two teachers present -> teacher chose shock level

Links to Hofling 1966 where 21/22 nurses administered a lethal injection because a doctor told them too

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45
Q

Barch et al 1996

A

Those in high importance groups are more susceptible to informational social bias then lower social groups, more conformity

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46
Q

Burger 2009

A

Even though participants were told they were allowed to leave, obidience rates did not significantly differ to Milgram, 1963

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47
Q

Cartwright and Zander 1968, Lewin 1948

A

Group = two or more people who interact and are inter-dependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other

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48
Q

Baumeister and Leary 1995

A

Groups most likely form due to evolutionary needs as it allowed better hunting, finding mates and better care for children

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49
Q

Social Facilitation vs Inhibition

A

SF: tendency to do better on simple tasks when peple are present e.g. Triplett 1898 = children wound up a fishing line quicker when in the presence of other children
SI: tendency to do worse on hard tasks when people are present

Zajonc 1965 = due to arousal

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50
Q

Why does social facilitation/inhibition happen?

A

1) Become more alert and vigilant
2) Make us apprehensive about being evaluated
3) Distraction

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51
Q

Latane et al 1979

A

Social Loafing = when in the presense of others, individual efforts lowers due to less motivation and being less noticeable

e.g., Ringelmann 1913 put less effort on pulling on a rope in a group than alone

52
Q

Weber et al 2004

A

Social Dilemma = where the most beneficial choice for the individual will become the least beneficial for the group e.g. watching pirated TV shows could cause an entire subscription service to shut down and then no TV for anyone

53
Q

Axelrod 1984

A

Prisoner’s Dilemma can create a tit-for-tat strategy where behaviour is based on what the previous person did

54
Q

Brewer 2007

A

Attracted to smaller groups as it creates more belongingness but also makes us feel more special and distinctive

55
Q

Baumeister et al 2016

A

Groups allows us to understand the world and our place within it

56
Q

Barley and Berhky 1994

A

When memebers follow clear roles, we feel more satisfied and perform well

57
Q

Alter and Darley 2009

A

Groups tend to attract similar people before they join

58
Q

Lea et al 2001

A

Deindividuation = lossening of normal constraints on behaviour when people cannot be identified

59
Q

Watson 1973

A

Warriors whose identies were hidden were significantly more likely to kill, torture or mutilate captives

60
Q

McLead 2013

A

Groups focus more on shared info than unique info

61
Q

Proximity

A
  • Best predictor of whether 2 people will be friends (Miller et al)
  • Festinger et al = when asked about best friends, 41% were neighbours, 65% in the same complex, and those by stairwells had 2x more friends
  • Why? availability, lower cost, anticipation of interaction, mere exposure effect, evolutionary adaptive, assumed to be similar
62
Q

Similarity

A
  • we like others who are similar to us in attitudes, backgrounds, interest, personality
  • Lescowitz and Horvitz = prefer to befriend/date/marry those who were a similar age, ethnicity, education, class and religion
  • Mayer and Ruller = likely to befriend someone with the same political beliefs
  • Matching Hypothesis, Murnstein = couples rated similarly attractive
  • Most important in long term relationships as it makes it easier to maintain, lower in short term such as flings or affairs
63
Q

Physical Attractiveness

A
  • Halo effect
  • May be more socially skilled e.g. Hammermesh and Biddle = 12-14% more money
  • Culture bound
  • Symmetrical faces preferred
64
Q

Technology

A

Proximity = not be as important as we can maintain relationships virtually e.g. long distance
Similarity = people seek others with similar “popularity” online
Familarity = Norton et al 2007 = knowledge of person increased after physical date, but liking decreased. Highlights that impression of online profile is not that accurate

65
Q

Berschied and Walster

A
  • Based on Hatfield and Sprecher 1986
  • Passionate love = wildly emotional, uncontrollable, psychiological arousal, preoccupation with the other, strikes suddenly but ends fast
  • Companionate love = affection to those we trust, caring, intertwined, tolerance, develops slowly but endures
66
Q

Henrick et al 1988

A

Couples with more companionate love experience greater satisfaction and longevity

67
Q

Sternberg 1986/97

A

3 distinct components of love
- Passion: motivational, physical attraction, constant thoughts, sexual desire
- Intimacy: emotional, closeness, promote welfare, high regard
- Commitment: cognitive, connection, responsibility, maintenance

These then form to make a triangle with 8 types (and no love) of love including:
Romantic = intimacy and passion
Companionate = intimacy and commitment
Factuous = passion and commitment

68
Q

Lee 1976

A

Colours of Love
- Eros (passionate), Storge (friendship), Ludus (uncommitted), = primary
- Mania = eros and ludus = obsessive
- Pragma = storge and ludus = practical
- Agape = eros and storge = selfless

69
Q

Bowlby 1969

A

Love is developed via attachments with the mother due to innate factors and closeness enhancing survical

70
Q

Ainsworth 1978

A

There are individual differences in attachment, creating the strange situation paradigm and what attachment you had as a child affects you in adulthood (Hazan and Shaver 1987)
- SECURE: Child = distressed on separation but easily comforted upon reunion. Adult = comfortable with intimacy and interdependent
- ANXIOUS-AMBIVALENT: Child = distressed upon separation and reunion, shows anger, interfering mother. Adult = fear abandonment
- AVOIDANT: Child = not distressed at seperation, avoid contact, prefer to explore. Adult = self reliant, uncomfortable with dependence

71
Q

Interdependence Theory

A
  • Thibaut and Kelley
  • Analyses the exchange and coordination of outcomes between interdependent partners
  • We evaluate outcomes with standard in profitability, comparison level, and comparison level of alternatives
  • Easier to maximise benefits when partners are similar
72
Q

Equity Theory

A
  • Walster et al 1978
  • individuals try to maximise their outcomes using rules of fairness
  • otherwise experience distress
  • couples more likely to remain together if both experience equity
  • Miell and Croghan 1996 = more important in the west
  • Aron and Aron = the closer we get to others, the more they are incorporated into our life
73
Q

Investment Model - Rusbult 1983

A

Rewards, Costs and Comparison level -> satisfaction, investment, quality of alternatives -> commitment -> stability

74
Q

Whyte and Torgler 2017

A

Children pick friends from thier own set

75
Q

Pinel et al 2006

A

Shared experiences fuel friendship and pormote attraction

76
Q

Little and Rerrell 2002

A

Prefer faces of the opposite sex that resemble ourselves

77
Q

Altruism

A

Desire to help another person, even if costs yourself

78
Q

Darwin’s Theory

A
  • Natural Selection
  • Kin Selection
79
Q

Social Exchange Theory

A

Homans 1961
- Maximise rewards and minimise costs
- Helping can be rewarding due to the norm of reciprocity, investments in future, relief of bystander distress, gain rewards
- However can also be dangerous, cause pain / embarassment
- True altruism doesn’t exist

80
Q

Lloyd et al 1984

A

Importance of rewards was a good predictor of if couples stayed together

81
Q

Empathy-Altruist Theory

A

When we feel empathy for a person, we are more inclined to help that person for altruistic reasons regardless of what we have to gain from it
- Toi and Batson 1982 = if empathy was high, more likely to help a struggling student outside of class but if low then would only help in class where costs were lower

82
Q

Latane and Darley 1970

A

Bystander Effect

Emegency -> Notice Event -> Interpret as Emergency -> Assume Responsibility -> Knowledge of Assistance -> Make Decision

83
Q

Gray et al 2014

A

Norm of reciprocity is genetically based due to links to survival

84
Q

Algoe 2012

A

Gratitude evolved to ensure reciprocity

85
Q

Davidio 1984

A

We are aroused and made uncomfortable by other people in distress so we help them to alleviate our own distress

86
Q

Eagly 2009

A

Men more likely to be altruistic in emergencies but women in every day situations e.g. getting someone out of a burning building vs helping someone cross the street

87
Q

Cialdini and Fultz 1990

A

People more likely to help when in a sad mood as helping can be rewarding

88
Q

Milgram 1970

A

Urban Overload Hypothesis
- Less likely to help due to more stimuli
- When you put citygoers in a calmer area, then helping increases

89
Q

Bringle 2005

A

Being made to volunteer makes your likelihood of doing it again decrease

90
Q

Social Cognitive Learning Theory

A

Bandura
- Children imitate aggression from adults when adults were rewarded for doing so, but not in controls

91
Q

Frustration-Aggression Theory

A
  • Frustration (perception that you are being prevented from attaining a goal) increases the probability of an aggressive response
  • Pain and discomfort increases aggression
  • Hsiang et al 2013 = the hotter it is, the more violent crimes take place
  • Barker et al 1941 = children who had to wait to play with toys, were more likely to throw or smash toys
  • Involves goal proximity
  • Frustration increases readiness to anger, not always creating an aggressive response
92
Q

Hovland and Sears 1940

A

Displace anger
More lynching of African-Americans when cotton prices increased

93
Q

How to decrease aggression

A

1) Do not use it as a punishment
2) Only use mild threat

94
Q

Catharsis

A

Doing something aggressive to reduce feelings of aggression, but this is an oversimplified psychoanalytic notion. Aggressive behaviour tends to increase further aggression

95
Q

Berkowitz 1993

A

Hostile aggression = stems from feelings and aims at inflicting pain
Instrumental = means to a goal

96
Q

Nishett et al 1983

A

Murder rates linked to economic stress

97
Q

Testa et al 2011

A

Main predictor of female spousal violence was mothers doing it

98
Q

Carre et al 2014

A

Teaching children to feel more competent in their emotions reduced anger and testosterone

99
Q

Richardson et al 1994

A

Teaching empahty reduces aggression

100
Q

Prejudice

A

A hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group based soley on the membership of that group

Affective = emotional aspect, negative emotions are often ingrained so difficult to change
Behaviour = discrimination, unjustified action toward a person due to membership of a group, Correll et al 2002 = more likely to shoot an unarmed black man than white in a video game
Cognitive = stereotypes and generalisations made about a group, certain traits are assigned to all members despite variation, simplifies the world

101
Q

Illusory Correlation

A

Perception of a relation between 2 elements which doesn’ exist or is exaggerated

102
Q

Illusion of outgroup homogeneity

A

Those of an outgroup are more similar than those on the ingroup

103
Q

McCrae et al 1994

A

Suppression of stereotypes doesn’t always work as being told not to think something creates more intrusions

104
Q

Word et al 1974

A

White students displayed discomfort when interviewing African-American candidates and rated them as more nervous, ineffective and incompetent. When the white students were interviewed by a researcher trained to act similarly, then they judged similarly to the African-American candidates

105
Q

Shih et al 1999

A

Asian women performed better on a maths test when primed to think of their ethnicity and did worse when primed on gender

106
Q

Causes for Prejudice

A

SOCIAL IDENTITY
- Ingroup bias
- Ethnocentricism
- Quattrone and Jones 1980 = more likely to say you’ll agree with the judgement of ingroup

REALISTIC CONFLICT THEORY
- Limited resources leads to conflict causing discrimination
- Feel threatened by outgroup so make them a scapegoat as they may already be disliked, so easily made powerless
- Sherif 1950a

107
Q

Contact Hypothesis

A
  • Mere contact is not sufficient to reduce prejudice as it can create opportunities for conflict
  • Prejudices decreases when both groups are of equal status and share a common goal
  • Page-Gould 2008 = black students had higher satisfaction when they had more friends of the majority race
  • Sherif et al 1961 = removing conflict and competetion doesn’t restore harmony and actually increased hostility and distrust. Instead made friends after co-operative activities to increase interdependence
108
Q

Jigsaw Classrooms

A
  • Designed to reduce prejudice and raise self esteem by placing children in small desegregated groups where they are dependent on one another to learn the material and do well
  • Promotes integration due to feelings of cohesion, sharing info and increase empathy
109
Q

Anzures et al 2013

A

If babies shown faces of 1 ethnicity, the they grow a preference but if they see multiple ethnicities then there are no preferences

110
Q

Allport 1954

A

Hard to use logic and reason to fight prejudice due to strong emotional responses

111
Q

Cuddy and Glick 2007

A

Stereotypes classified along 2 universal dimensions: compentence and warm/cold

112
Q

Minard 1952

A

Black and White miners worked together well underground but didn’t when back in segregated society out of work

113
Q

Pettigrew and Tropp 2006

A

Repeated contact can modify stereotypes

114
Q

When prejudice is reduced, it can cause:

A

Decategorisation: see people as individual rather than memmer of a group

Recategorisation: focus on a common membership

115
Q

Maass 1999

A

Prejudice does not always have to be obvious, can be linguistic differences e.g. tendency to use concrete, specific language describing positive outgroup members or negative ingroup characteristics and abstract terms related to enduring traits in negative outgroup and positive ingroups

e.g. Him in particular is smart but she isn’t acting too smart today

116
Q

Jones and Nishett 1972

A

Actor-Observer Bias
- Attribute others behaviour to dispositions but our own to situation due to access to different info

117
Q

Nusrath et al

A

Jigsaw classrooms increased communication skills, analytical skills, and enjoyment

118
Q

Walter and Crogan

A

Jigsaw classrooms decreased racial prejudice

119
Q

Lucas et al

A

Children under 4 representative heuristic hasn’t fully developed so focus more on objective information, therefore making less biased decisions

120
Q

Fantino et al

A

Conjuncion error less likely in 3 statements than 2

121
Q

Fishbein et al

A

Individual’s self evaluation is only influenced by reference group norms in the absence of objective criterion

122
Q

Festinger and Carlsmith

A

Forced Compliance Paradigm
- paradigm where those in authority can make lower members change their judgements/attitudes against their better judgement e.g. the lying study

123
Q

Metin

A

Don’t use severe punishment as it reinforces the forced compliance paradigm

124
Q

Nicholson and Lutz

A

Self esteem affects cognitive dissonance

125
Q

Wagstuff et al

A

Social Facilitation and Inhibition related to levels of executive functioning and processing
- Facilitation = non-exec and temporal
- Inhibition = exec and frontal