Social Psychology Flashcards
What is social psychology?
investigates aspects of human behaviour that involve the individuals relationship to other persons, groups and society including cultural influences on behaviour.
What are the four key assumptions of social psychology?
- Other people can affect out behaviour, thought processes and emotions
- The social situation can affect our behaviour, thought processes and emotions
- Being in groups in society also affects our behaviour. We tend to favour people who are members of the groups to which we belong
- The roles we play in society can slo affect out behaviour.
What is the aim of Milgrams study of obedience?
To see if volunteer participants would be similarly obedient to inhumane orders: how far would they go in giving electric shocks to soon who they believed to be another participant?
What was the procedure of Milligrams study of obedience?
- used advertisement and mail to recruit a sample of 40 male volunteers
- conducted at yale university
- all participants were paid
- one participant would be a teacher and would would be the student by drawing a lot (this was rigged)
- they were told the aim was to see how punishment affected learning - the teacher was given a sample shock of 45 volts
- the teacher asked the confederate a series of word lists they had to get right
- if they got wrong they had to administer an electric shock, increasing it each time
- if teacher asked experimenter for advice they had 4 prompts, please continue, the experiment requires that you continue, its absolutely essential that you continue and you have no other choice, you must go on.
- all participants were interviewed after
What were the quantitive and qualitative results from Milligrams study of obedience?
Quantitive:
stopped at 300v = 5
stopped at 360v = 8
stopped at 375v = 1
100% of participants went to 300v
65% of participant went to maximum voltage (450v)
qualitative:
showed visible signs of distress: sweating, trembling, nervous laughter and protesting
what are some conclusions from Milligrams study into obedience?
social influence is strong and people tend to obey orders even when this causes them distress
social factors that may have influenced obedience:
- study seemed to have a worthy cause
- Yale is a prestigious university
- volunteers so felt obliged to take part
- they were paid so felt obliged to listen
- they believed the shocks were painful but not dangerous
Evaluate Milgrams Study of Obedience
Generalisability:
- all participant from one area of america so ethnocentric
- only used males
- volunteers so they wanted to take part
Reliability:
- lab experiment
- standardised procedures such as:
- same leaner used each time
- same prompts given
- tape recording of reactions so was the same every time
- same instructions given
Application:
- shows influence the social situation can have on obedience
- helps understand previous behaviours such as WW2 concentration camps
- aware of peoples tendency to obey authority figures
- society can make sure people in authority don’t abuse their power
Validity:
- artificial setting so low ecological validity
- artificial task
- high experimental realism as people felt real tension
Ethics:
- consent was gained
- confidentiality protected
- no right to withdraw
- psychological harm caused
- deception used
What were Milgrams three variation studies?
Variation 7 = telephonic instructions
Variation 10 = rundown office block
Variation 13 = ordinary man giving instructions
What is the APRC of Milgrams variation 7 experiment?
Aim: wether having the experimenter in the room has an affect in obedience so they changed the proximity
Procedure:
- experimenter gave initial instructions in the room
- left the room
- gave remaining instructions over the phone
Results:
- number of participants giving maximum voltage dropped to 22.5%
- people administers lower voltage shocks than they were supposed to
Conclusions:
- people are more obedient when they are in the physical presence of an authority figure
- proximity does effect obedience
What is the APRC of Milgrams variation 10 experiment?
Aim: wether the setting of the experiment has an affect on obedience levels. He changed the location.
Procedure:
- same experiment
- carried out in a rundown office block in an industrial area
- rooms had minimal furniture
- said the research was being conducted by research associates of bridgeport
Results:
- 47.5% of people have maximum voltage
Conclusions:
- the less reputable setting reduced the legitimacy of the study
- participants questioned the research associates of bridgeport
What is the APRC of Milgrams variation 13 experiment?
Aim: wether the authority and status of the experimenter influenced obedience
Procedure:
- three participants (one real and 2 confederates)
- second confederate was given role of recording times
- experimenter received a phone call and left the room
- second confederate told teacher to up the voltage each time they got wrong
- therefore instructions were bing given by an ordinary man
Results:
- 80% stopped before maximum voltage
- 20% administered maximum voltage
Conclusions:
- authority level and status of the experimenter does effect obedience
What are the two theories that explain obedience?
Agency theory
Social Impact Theory
What is agency theory?
Developed by Milgram
People have two states:
- autonomous state
- agentic state
Autonomous state: person believes that they have the power, they choose their own behaviour and take control of their actions
Agentic state: person allows someone else to direct their behaviour, believe the person directing them is responsible for the consequences of their behaviour, they may act against their moral code
- displacing their responsibility onto an authority figure reduces moral strain
Acting in the agentic state can be explained through evolution:
- following leaders obediently meant more chance of survival
- in modern day, the agentic state helps society run smoothly
Evaluate Milgrams agency theory of obedience
Applications:
- it explains real life events such as soldiers in the vietnam war (orders of massacre)
- studies from different cultures support it
- theory can be applied to real life such as nurses obeying doctors
- does not explain individual differences (why some people obey and others don’t)
Methodology :
- Milgrams studys used standardise procedures
- therefore infer cause and effect, increasing scientific credibility
- theory explains the different levels of obedience found in the variations
- Milgrams study lacks mundane realism so can’t generalise to life outside the lab
Evidence:
- Milgrams study supports the concept of moral strain (p’showed distress)
- Milgrams study provides evidence for displacement of responsibility
- Hofling found nurses would follow doctors orders when asked to give a patient twice the daily does of a drug
- lacks direct evidence and agency is and internal mental process
- theory is a description not an explanation
Alternative Theory:
- Social Impact theory
What is social impact theory?
Developed by Latane
- source and target
- mathematical equation
The likelihood someone will respond to social influence increases with:
- Strength: status, authority or age of source
- Immediacy: distance of space and time between source and target
- Number: how many sources and target are in a group
Multiplication of impact - social influence becomes stronger
Division of impact - social influence becomes weaker
Evaluate social impact theory
Applications:
- mathematical formula can predict how people will behave in certain conditions
- theory is static not dynamic as it does not take into account how the source and target interact with one another
Methodology:
- both lab and field experiments used so increased scientific credibility
- mathematical formula could be reductionist
Evidence:
- milgram did a variation where two peers rebelled against the instructions and obedience dropped (decision of impact)
- milgram variation 7 shows proximity is a factor
- sedikides and jackson found people obeyed a uniformed zoo keeper compared to a casually dressed zoo keeper
- ignores individual differences
- does not explain why people are influenced by others just the conditions
Alternative theory:
- Agency theory
What are two individual differences that affect obedience?
- personality
- gender
what are the aspects of personality that affects obedience?
Locus of control:
- extent people feel they are in control of their own lives
- external locus of control believe their behaviour is beyond their control
- internal behaviour of control believe they are responsible for their own behaviour
Authoritarianism:
- personality trais characterised by hostility to people of a different race, social group, age, sexuality and other minorities
- tend to be submissive to authority but harsh to those seen as subordinate to them
- Milgram and elms: compared F-scale score for 20 obedient and 20 defiant participants in milligrams experiments. Obedient participants had a higher F-sacle score
Empathy:
- Burger found people who score high on empathy were more likely to protest giving electric shocks but it did not translate into lower levels of obedience
describe some evidence for gender as an individual difference affecting obedience
Milgram:
- conducted a variation of his experiment
- 40 female teachers
- results virtually identical to male (65% obedience)
- level of anxiety was much higher
Kilham and Mann:
- replicated milligrams study in australia
- women were less obedient than men (16% compared to 40%)
- females were paid with other females so they may have felt sense of solidarity
Blass:
- meta analysis of 9 studies
- only Kilham and Mann found gender differences
Overall findings are that gender makes little difference to obedience but there are differences in the emotional response
What are the 4 situational variables that affect obedience?
In Milgrams research
Momentum of compliance:
- experiments start with small and trivial requests
- these commit the participant to the experiment
- feel duty bound to continue
Proximity:
- closer the authority figure, higher the level of obedience
- the closer the victim, the lower the obedience
Status of authority figure:
- obedience is strongest when the authority of figure is legitimate
- obedience decreased when orders were given by an ordinary man
Personality responsibility:
- obedience is strongest when participants felt that someone else was responsible (the experimenter)
What are the two types of culture that can affect obedience?
individualistic culture:
- behave more independently, resisting conformity.
- emphasise individualism within the group
collectivist cultures:
- e.g. israel and china
- stress the importance of the whole group as a collective
- cooperation and compliance is important
What are 5 pieces of evidence that support culture affecting obedience?
Ancona and Pareyson:
- italy
- replicated milgram study using students
- 80% obedience rate
Slater:
- UK
- virtual reality replication go Milgram
- 73.9% obedience rate
Meuss and Rajjmakers:
- Netherlands
- would be psychologically abuse a job interviewee
- 92% obedience rate
Schurz:
- Austria
- Milgram using bursts of ultrasound that could cause damage
- 80% obedience rate
Blass:
- USA
- reviewed studies and averaged obedience levels
- USA obedience level 60.94%
- other obedience levels 65.94%
What is the aim of burgers study?
To partially replicate Milgrams study
This would allow:
- comparisons with the original study
- protection of the participants
What was the screening process for Burgers study?
- participants who had studied more than two psychology classes at uni were excluded
- participants asked about childhood trauma (30% of p’s excluded based on this)
- interviews to identify anyone who would be negatively affected by the study (38.8% of p’s excluded based on this)
final sample: 70 people
What was the procedure and results of Burgers baseline condition?
- replicated milligrams study
- confederate told participant he had a heart problem
- experiment stopped at 150 volts as this was the point of no return
- participants were debriefed immediately
Results:
- 30% stopped at 150 or sooner
- 70% prepared to continue after 150
What was the aim of the modelled refusal condition in Burgers study?
to see if people would be less likely to be obedient if there was social support for the idea of exiting the study sooner
What was the procedure and results of Burgers modelled refusal condition?
- identical to baseline condition
- two confederates
- second confederate sat with participant
- at 90 volts the second confederate refused to continue
- participant was asked to continue when the confederate had left the room
Results:
- 36.6% stopped at 150 or sooner
- 63.3% prepared to continue after 150
What are the conclusions from Burgers study?
- results are similar to milgrams so changes in society culture did not have an affect on obedience
- seeing refusal to obey did not affect obedience
- screening process may have affected results
- no significant gender differences
- lack of empathy did not explain obedience
Evaluate Burgers Study
Generalisability:
- many people with emotional issues and students excluded
- included both males and females
Reliability:
- control of extraneous variables such as not using psychology students
- ethical so it can still be replicated
Applications:
- helps understand seeing others refuse does not reduce obedience
- need different factors to reduce obedience
- changes in society are needed to reduce obedience
Validity:
- artificial setting and task so lacks ecological validity
- demand characteristics reduces such as excluding psych students
Ethics:
- gave consent
- had the right to withdraw
- debriefed immediately after
What is prejudice and what are the three negative components to prejudice?
To be prejudice means to prejudge someone before knowing anything about them as an individual. It is an extreme attitude.
- Cognitive - stereotyping
- Affective - prejudice
- Behavioural - Discrimination
What are the two theories for explaining prejudice?
Realistic conflict theory
Social identity theory
What is realistic conflict theory?
- prejudice is due to conflict between groups
- conflict arises due to competition
- when two different social groups compete for the same valued resource, their members become prejudice and hostile towards each other
- groups need to work towards shared goals in order to reduce hostility
Evaluate Realistic conflict theory
Applicability:
- prejudice can reduce if superordinate goals are introduced
- Aronson found the jigsaw technique of working towards a shared goal reduced hostility in the classroom
Methodology:
- Sheriff robbers cave experiment
- field study so high in ecological validity
- high mundane realism as they were common tasks
Evidence:
- Sherif found competition between boys increased hostility
- when boys had shared goals, hostility reduced
- this gives the theory scientific credibility
- Ember and Ember cross cultural relevance as intergroup hostility rises in tribal communities when there is competition of a limited resource
- boys in robbers cave experiment became hostile before completion was introduced
- ignores individual differences
Alternative theory:
- Social identity theory
What was the aim of sherif’s robbers cave experiment?
to investigate wether inter group relations over a period of time when various experimentally induced situations were introduced
particularly interested in:
- group formation
- effect of competition
- conditions under which conflict can be resolved
What was the sample and data collection methods used in sherif’s robbers cave experiment?
sample: 22 11 year old boys
- all white, american, lower middle class
- all protestant
- all above average iq
- boys in each group were bathed on different variables such as educational and sporting ability
data collection:
- observation (12 hours a day by professional)
- sociometric analysis (friendship patterns and self report questionnaires)
- experiments
- tape-recordings
What was the procedure of sherif’s robbers cave experiment?
Stage one: In-group formation
- first 5-6 days
-two groups kept separate
- tasks given to them to help them bond
- eagles vs rattlers
- at the end, groups were made aware of one another
Stage two: Friction phase
- next 4-6 days
- as soon as groups knew about each other they expressed hostility
- encouraged hostility by setting up situations where they had to compete for desirable prizes
Stage three: Integration phase
- final 6-7 days
- designed to reduce tension
- two groups watched a film together
- took part in joint problem solving activities such as freeing a truck that was stuck in mud
What were the results of sherif’s robbers cave experiment?
Stage one:
- boys bonded with their groups
- developed group norms
- each had a recognised leader
- refer to other groups as ‘us and them’
Stage two:
- competition lead to immediate hostility
- eagles refused to eat with rattlers
- groups shouted insults at each other
- groups raided each others huts
- strong in group favouritism and negative out group bias
Stage three:
- getting the group together without competition (watching the film) did not reduce hostility
- going problem solving tasks did reduce hostility
- friendship choices increased between groups
What were the conclusions from Sherif’s robbers cave experiment?
Strong in group relations formed initially and with the introduction of competition negative out group bias quickly emerged
- hostility was observed as soon as groups knew about one another - prejudice does not always need competition
- competition increases prejudice and hostility
- contact between groups is not enough to reduce hostility
- when groups cooperate on tasks, hostility and prejudice are reduced
- this research supports realistic conflict theory
Describe social identity theory
Tajfel and Turner
- being in a group is enough to cause conflict
- in groups and out groups
- social identity affects personal identity as belonging to a group creates in group favouritism and out group hostility to raise self esteem
Three processes involved:
1. social catégorisation - catégories ourselves and others as part of a a particular social group
- social identitifcation - take on the norms and values of the group
- social comparison - self esteem becomes bound up with group membership. This leads to in group favouritism and out group bias
Describe Tajfels minimal group theory study
64 bristol school boys were allocated to meaningless groups
boys were ages to allocates points to boys in their own group or another group
boys tended to allocate more points to people in their own group (evidence for in group favourtism)
individual members would maximise the difference between the groups, even if it meant their own group recovering fewer points overall.
evaluate social identity theory an an explanation for prejudice
Evidence:
- tajfels minimal group study
- Lemyre and Smith replicated tajfels study sonf found discriminating group participants had higher self esteem after the study
- Cialdini found an individuals personal identity is affected by their association to a football team - uni students more likely to wear the teams shirt after winning a match
- Jane Elliot showed students who were divided into blue eyed and brown eyed categories lead to prejudice and discrimination
- theory may not apply cross culturally
- weathered found that New Zealand Polynesians were more likely to favour the out group
- Postmes argues that it is the individual characteristics that create a social identity, not a social identity that determines and individual characteristic
Methodology:
- Tajfel was conducted in a lab experiment
- demand chacrertsitics may have been present
- study was well controlled so cause and effect can be inferred
Applications:
- explain issues such as conflict between football teams ab different religious groups
- can be used to reduce prejudice in society
Alternative theory:
- realistic conflict theory
What are two individual differences that can affect prejudice?
- Personality
- Culture
How can personality affect prejudice?
Chors - personality such as openness to experience and agreeableness is negatively associated with prejudice
Adorno - having an authoritarian personality may explain why some people are prejudice
- people with authoritarian personality are hostile to those seen as inferior to themselves
- authoritarian personality developed in childhood due to harsh parenting .
How can culture affect prejudice?
Individualistic vs collectivist cultures:
- Al-Zahrani and Kaplowitz found Saudi (collectivist culture) to report more in group favourtism and negative out group bias than americans (individualistic)
- Kleugel found that collectivism is associated with greater tolerance and lower racism
Multiculturalism:
- Guimond found that prejudice was lower in countries that had a pro-diversity policy
- lowest levels of prejudice was in Canada and highest in Germany
Katz and Braly:
- questionnaire on American students
- investigating national stereotypes that had about other cultures
- majority of american students classified African Americans and superstitious and ignorant and Jews as shrewd.
What is your key question in social psychology?
What makes people commit acts of terrorism against fellow human beings?
What is meant by terrorism?
The use of threat or action to influence a government or intimidate the public for a political or religious cause
Apply the theories from social psychology to explain terrorism
Realistic conflict theory:
- competition between terrorists and anti terrorists groups
Agency theory:
- terrorists may be following orders from someone in authority
- distance the blame onto them
Social identity theory:
- terrorists may have linked their self worth to their in group leading to in group favouritism. This could lead to discrimination towards out groups
Evaluate the use of social psychology to explain terrorism
Strengths:
- social identity theory shows how people begin to identity with their group
- they begin to see their group as better to maintain self esteem
- Tajfel’s study of school boys
- Agency theory explains people follow bad orders from authority figures
- terrorists may be displacing blame as seen in Milgram’s study into obedience
Weaknesses:
- Tajfel’s findings from school boys in a lab cannot generalise to the complex nature of terrorist activity
- Milgram’s study lacks ecological validity so may not be applicable to real life situations
What was the title of the practical you completed in social psychology?
A questionnaire to investigate wether people with an internal or external locus of control are more likely to be obedient
What was the aim of your practical in social psychology?
The aim of this study was to use self report in the form of a questionnaire to investigate wether people with an internal or external locus of control were more obedient
What was your alternate hypothesis for your practical in social psychology?
There will be a significant difference in obedience, measure by scores on a self report questionnaire, between participants with an internal and external locus of control, also measured by scores on a self report questionnaire
What was your sample and procedure of your practical in social psychology?
Sample:
7 participants
men and women
opportunity sampling
Procedure:
- participants were given a questionnaire between the 17th and 22nd january
- given to people at my house and gatwick airport
- qualitative and quantitive data was collected
Evaluate your practical in social psychology
Strenghts:
- high reliability as standardised procedures used ( same questionnaire)
- sample was not based as we did not control who answered it
Weaknesses:
- not a very representative sample ( we should improve by getting more people from different areas)
- may not be high in clarify as we mainly collected quantitive data
